"•'■.v."TVt;- '^iy c >x'i^ .s.•■'.■ 






<■'■ fe 



> 




1. 




i--7<V.;.,!i^;V,''r•'•fi. 










diss / fli 7fr 

Book ' C ^ 



(lOpmglil N°. 



COFYRIC.MT DKroslT. 



American 
Stationary Engineering 



Facts, rules and general information gathered 
from thirty years' practical experience 
as running, erecting and de- 
signing engineer. 



▼ TV 



By W. E. CRANE. 



T ▼ ▼ 




New York. 
1906. 



.OB. 



OCT 6 1906 




Copyrighted 1906 
by the Derry-Collard Co. 



/I 



^ 



3 



Preface. 

The writer bought a milHon-gallon pumping engine 
and the low pressure side did not work smoothly. -The 
builders sent three experts to remedy the trouble at as 
many different times, but made no improvement.. These 
men were sent without giving me notice, so that I was 
never there to meet them. 

I wrote the builders to please not send any more 
experts, but if they, had a plain, practical man, that, had 
a fair knowledge of steam pumps I would be pleased to 
meet him at the station. 

This is what this book is intended to be ; a .plain talk 
on every-day work about engines, boilers and their acces- 
sories. It is not intended to be scientific or mathematical. 
I have tried to put all formulas in a simple form so that 
any one understanding plain arithmetic can readily under- 
stand any of them. 

The writer commenced when books were very scarce 
and he has seen the need of just such a book as this. 
Some of the matter I have been unable to find in any 
book at the present time. 

Some of the subjects have been covered completely in 
other books devoted exclusively to the particular branch 
like the indicator, slide valves, etc., and these subjects 
have not been treated at length here. 



Sometimes when questions are asked it sets a man 
thinking deeper than by just reading the text, and a 
large number of questions has been introduced on sub- 
jects mentioned in the book. Direct answers have not 
been given in all cases, but the reader can refer to 
index and learn what has been done under similar 
conditions and study and determine what he would do 
under like conditions. 

A number of books are published purporting to give 
questions and answers before an examining board when 
applymg for a license. 

No man can know the questions that will be asked 
nor: the answers that will be required. 

The examiners wish to learn how experienced a man 
is and' the information he has of his own knowledge. 

A young man can get much information from the 
experience of practical men, but this must be supple- 
mented by study, experience and research of his own 
if he~ is to impress others with his ability. 

It will usually be found that thoroughly well-posted 
men. are willing to give some of their time to imparting 
information to those whom they think will appreciate and 
profit- by it. 

It is generally the rule that it is only those pos- 
sessing- but a small fund of knowledge that become so 
important with their small lore that are churlish in the 
matter. 

It is the man that is willing to help others that gets 
along, in life, and it is this man that will become posted 
in his^ business. 

July, 1906. W. E. Crane. 



The Boiler Room. 

T ▼ ▼ 

In a boiler room, neatness should be observed in 
everything. The floor should be kept clean, — and for 
this purpose a hose should be conveniently located, — the 
side walls and top of boilers should be cleaned once per 
week. 

All surfaces in contact with the fire should be swept 
as frequently as time will allow, but the tube surface 
should be cleaned at least twice per week. 

With some classes of boilers, and with fairly clean, 
soft water washing out once in six months may keep 
them in good condition, but the water should be changed 
every two or three weeks. With some types of water 
tube boilers, where the water enters at the front of the 
drum, it is frequently only necessary to let the water run 
out and then turn on the feed water full and the water 
will wash out all deposit in the drum and mud-drum. 
With most water tube and with tubular boilers, however, 
it is necessary to take a hose, and there should be consid- 
erable pressure. Where there is scale and considerable 
mud, the boiler should be gone over thoroughly as fre- 
quently as the opportunity offers. 

7 



Filtration - Piping — Testing Water. 

With very muddy waters a filtration plant will pay, 
as mud and day are more to be feared than lime. 

With tubular boilers properly set and the water fed 
at the proper place, the larger part of deposit will be 
found at the rear end, as that is the part with the slowest 
circulation. 

In water tube boilers the larger part will be found 
in the rear circulating tubes, rear manifolds and rear end 
of tubes. 

The important things for a man to look after when 
taking charge of a set of boilers for the first time is to 
see that his water gauges are all clear by blowing them 
all out. Look his piping all over and see if there are any 
water pockets that would be liable to collect water and 
let it over in a body; note the position and design of all 
the stop valves and the manner of getting to them in case 
of emergency ; look the water piping over and the source 
of supply for the pumps ; the type of pumps, and try them 
to see that they work properly and that there are no broken 
valves ; note the heater, or the absence of any, and test 
the water to see if it is hard. 

This can be fairly well decided by putting some in a 
pail and washing the hands with soap. If the water is 
soft there will be nothing but soap suds on top ; if hard, 
there will be a scum formed on top. A chemical analysis 
will be required to determine the kind of impurity and 
quantity. Silica means sand and the like, while this 
mixed with alumina and iron means clay and a dirty 
boiler. 

The safety valves should be looked to. If lever 
valves, they should be raised to see if they respond 
readily and if they leak after use. 

If "pop" valves, bearing down on the lever will 

8 



Safety Valves — Gage Glasses. 

cause them to blow, if not set for too high a pressure. At 
the first opportunity the steam should be raised to the 
pressure at which it is desired to blow and see that they 
blow freely from the pressure. Note the blow-off pipe 
and valves and try the valves. The grates and furnace 
can be attended to the first time the fire is out. Note 
condition of brick work, connection of flues, etc., and 
see if there are any large cracks for air to enter. 

When firing up in morning be sure to try the water 
gauges the first thing, and see that everything about them 
is free, and that there is no stoppage at top of column, 
provided the water goes down in the glass and raises 
partially. 

On modern glass gauges there are levers put across 
the stop cocks and chain attached to both top and bottom 
so that they can be closed from the floor. These are 
fastened to the stem with a set-screw. Should this set- 
screw become loose when the top is closed it will not 
open and the gauge will show nearly full of water until 
the water is entirely out of the water column. Any time 
that the glass gauge shows different from the gauge cocks, 
either this has hapened or ^he connections are closed. 
There was one case on a ne\v boiler where the cocks and 
glass showed different, the glass showing nearly full, 
while the cocks showed steam, and it was found that 
the top glass gauge fitting had no hole through it and no 
valve seat. 

Firing. 

When using anthracite coal Professor Thurston's 
rule is correct — that the fire should be five times as thick 
as the average piece of coal. This applies to all sizes. 

With a fire on a flat grate much thicker than the 
above there will be a tendency for the coal to melt and 



Thickness of Fire — Clinkers. 

form an excessive amount of clinker, and if much thinner, 
too much air will pass through. 

Care should be used never to poke or molest a hard 
coal fire, except when cleaning, and then the fire should 
not be reduced too thin, even if all the clinkers are not 
removed, as when disturbed, and too thin, the fire will 
go out. 

It is important that the fire should be kept of uni- 
form thickness, and that this be done with the shovel, 
and never with hoe or poker. 

After cleaning a fire and the first layer of coal is 
ignited, it is sometimes beneficial to run a thin slice bar 
along just on top of the grates, and return in the same 
manner, being careful not to disturb the body of the fire. 
This loosens up any clinker that may be forming, and 
keeps the air space open. This slice bar is shown in Fig. 
I. The cross-piece can be 12 to 15 inches long and i^ 
to 2 inches wide. It should not be more than ^ inch 
thick. 

Clinkers that form on the brick are most easily 
removed after cleaning fires at night, when they are 
cooling off. They cool on the outside first and contract, 
which, in a measure, helps to pull them from the wall, 
and, being in a partially plastic condition at the wall at 
that time, they are separated with little injury to the 
wall. The hard case that is formed on the outside of 
the clinker makes them sufficiently rigid for a poker or 
breaking-up bar to get a good hold on them. The 
woman's method is to put oyster shells in the fire next the 
brick. 

Should a slice bar be run under the fire just top 
of grates every time the fire is replenished, the fire will 
be kept fairly clean, so that but little cleaning is necessary 

10 



Tools for Cleaning Fires. 

at night. This will make hot and warped grates, unless 
the ash pit is kept cool. This can be done with water 
in the ash pit or a small amount of steam. A small 
amount of steam will materially reduce the size and hard- 
ness of the clinker. 

A hoe, shown below, is a favorite for cleaning fire. 
This hoe is round on top, and by turning this side 
down and shoving the coal off the ash, it will do it much 
neater, get the coal off quicker and with less ash in the 
coal than when using the straight side. 

D 



Fig. I. Hoe (at top) — Slice Bar — Breaking up Bar. 

The better plan is to have a bar made something 
like a boat oar, with the blade 15 inches long and 4 inches 
wide. Push all the coal from one side of the furnace to 
the other side, pull out the ashes, then push all the coal 
on to the clean grates, and when the ashes are removed 
the fire can be leveled off and have a perfectly clean fire. 

The best plan is to have dumping grates with front 
and rear sections, push the fire back, dump the front 
part, pull the fire forward and dump the rear. This 
leaves a clean fire and is very quickly done. 

II 



Soft Coal and Smoke. 

« 

A "Lazy bar" made from a piece of ^-inch iron 
or of gas pipe and arranged to lie across the front of 
the door so as to support the weight of the hoe, makes 
the work much easier, both in cleaning the fire and 
hauling the ashes out of the ash-pit. 

When it comes to burning the soft coal the problem 
is altogether different. These coals cake together and 
the air can only get through where there are breaks ; 
there the fire burns rapidly and soon makes a large hole 
that allows too much air to pass through, which has a 
cooling effect. These coals contain a large amount of 
hydrocarbon gases that distill at a low temperature, and 
unless the firing is done so that they distill slowly, a 
large amount will pass up the chimney without imparting 
the heat to the boiler that would result from its proper 
combustion. 

Improper firing, when the fires are run hot, results 
in the emission of a 'large amount of smoke. It requires 
but a small amount of carbon to color a large amount of 
gas ; so that the smoke alone is not a great waste, but 
it indicates that there is a great amount of gas, uncon- 
sumed, going away with it. 

During the Civil 'War, coal, like everything else, 
got very high. At one time and place coal was $i6 per 
ton delivered. At that time the buckwheat sizes were 
unknown, nut being the smallest size, and all smaller 
being thrown away. 

One man procured a patent for a steam blower to 
burn yard screenings, which included everything below 
nut, fine dust and all. 

The blower was made by making a circle of hoop 
iron, inside of which was a center with ^-inch pipes 
radiating therefrom. In these pipes i-i6-inch holes were 

12 



An Old Time Blower. 

drilled. The steam part is shown in Fig. 2. The center 
supported a little fan blower, the blades being of the 
same number as the steam pipes and the steam jets blow- 
ing against these blades made a steam turbine and a fan 
all in one. It revolved with a high velocity, and screen- 
ings were burned very satisfactorily. Great stress was 
laid by the inventor on the high velocity of the fan. 

Such a fan could not be durable, while the pipes 
would last for years, and when the fan went to pieces it 
was found that the blower consisting of steam jets did the 
business just the same. 







Fig. 2. An Old Steam Fan Blower. 

Since that time there have been innumerable inven- 
tions of steam blowers for burning small anthracite, and, 
of course, all of them improvements like the "improve- 
ments" on George H. Corliss' engine. 

They sell for all kinds of prices, depending a good 
deal on the talking ability of the maker. 

A home-made affair is shown in Fig. 3. The pipes 
are Yi inch, are set 3 inches apart and have i- 16-inch 
holes, 3 inches apart. The opening in the wall of the 
ash pit should be 3 inches wider than the blower on 
each side. 



13 



Home-made Blower. 

As anthracite deadens rapidly when stirred, the 
cleaning should be done quickly, leveled off, the fresh 
coal put on and draft given as quickly as possible. 

It is not possible to keep a fire with small sizes clean 
with a slice bar, as, if a fire is run so as to burn 12 to 
15 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour, the 
clinkers will be too large to go through a grate opening 
of suitable size for such coal. 



o 



a o ^ CD 

PIPES W 
HOLES r" 



SPACED 3* 



a 



ii 



Fig. 3. A Home-made Blower. 

Where only a flat grate is provided, one method is to 
push the coal back against the bridge wall, haul out the 
ashes in front, pull the coal down in front and pull the 
ash and clinker from the rear over the coal. This leaves 
some ash and clinker in the coal. 

Various methods have been tried to prevent this 
waste, and many, also, to prevent smoke. It has been 
assumed by many that if the smoke was prevented the 
economy was sure. Among the early methods was that 
of admitting large quatities of air over the fire. This 



14 



Smoke Prevention — Pulverized Coal. 

plan, carried so far as to completely prevent all smoke, 
will result in loss ; although if properly appHed, and the 
smoke reduced to a dull brown, there may be a good 
saving in fuel. 

One plan described by C. W. Williams was the down 
draft system, which consists in taking in the air through 
the furnace doors and down through the fire, where the 
gases pass over a bed of incandescent fuel, chiefly from 
the fire that has fallen through the grates. 

This style of firing cokes the green coal top of the 
fire and requires some slicing to let the air through, and 
also requires water grates as the fire must pass between 
the grates. A furnace of this type should be entirely 
outside of the boiler. Where the grate is under the 
boiler, the cold air rushing in at the furnace door cools 
the boiler at that point and sets up a strain. 

A later form on somewhat the same principles is to 
feed the coal under the fire with a screw. 

Another idea that has been tried, but not with much 
enthusiasm for boiler work, is to reduce the coal to fine 
powder and blow it into the furnace. On account of the 
power required to pulverize the coal it has not met with 
much success. To pulverize i,ooo pounds of coal per 
hour and blow it into the furnace would require about 
15 horse-power. j 

In the cement industry powdered fuel is used almost 
exclusively. The kilns rotate so that a grate is inadv 
missible and the heat required is over 3,000 degrees. 
Pulverized fuel blown in is the ideal plan. Where the 
air is so throughly mixed with this finely pulverized fuel 
no more than the theoretical amount of air is required 
and the combustion can be carried on without a particle 
of smoke. 

15 



About Firing. 

Anthracite coal cannot be used for this purpose, §:as 
coal being the best of all the soft coals. 

One of the best methods when firing by hand is 
the coking plan. The favorite plan is to have a plate 
at the front of the furnace, put the necessary quantity of 
fresh coal on to this plate; the gases will distill slowly 
and, in passing over the fire, will be consumed. When 
the coal has parted with the volatile gases it can be 
spread over the grates with a hoe and will produce very 
little smoke. 

Where the fires are run thin with hand firing and 
the coal is spread thin all over the furnace, the gases 
are distilled too rapidly for the furnace, cooled by the 
addition to the fresh fuel to completely consume. 

Keeping the fire somewhat thicker and ''patching" 
the fire — that is, throwing the coal so as to fill up the 
holes — will result in the loss of a large amount of gas 
unconsumed. 

Prevention of smoke has received a large amount 
of attention of late years because of the growing use 
of soft coal. One plan is to put in small steam jets 
over the fire; the valves to same opened when the door 
is opened by a suitable connection. Then, by another 
device, these valves are slowly closed automatically, the 
object being to be sure that the steam is turned on, and 
kept only when there is fresh coal put on and during 
the period of smoky fire. 

The better method of firing the soft coal is to put 
the coal on heavy on one side of the furnace. Just 
before the other side needs replenishing use a breaking- 
up bar, as shown in Fig. i. This bar is run along the 
top of the grates and the coke raised easily, so as to 
break it up as finely as possiblbe, but not in such a man- 

16 



A Good Plan of Firing. 

ner as to throw out great pieces and leave large holes. 
The bar should be of steel, i to i^ inches diameter, 
according to the length of the furnace. It should be 
about 3 feet longer than the grate. It requires a little 
practice and patience to learn to do this easily, but if 
handled right, it is easily done and the fire kept even. 




Fig. 4. Firing Soft Coal — Top View. 

After the coke on one side has been broken, then cover 
the other side in the same manner. 

For a furnace 7 feet square the coal would be put 
on one side, as shown in Fig. 4, nine shovelfuls with No. 
6 scoop. 

Firing in this manner, the smoke will be reduced 
to a minimum, but where there are city laws regarding 

17 



Mechanical Stokers. 

smoke, recourse would be necessary to the steam jets 
on top of the fire. The smoke will come only from the 
part that is broken up, and not from the fresh coal. 

Another important thing is : With coal spread even 
and light over a thin fire, the evaporation of water was 
9.81 pounds for each pound of coal from 212 degrees of 
feed water to steam at atmospheric pressure. 

With the coking fire, as indicated, the evaporation 
was 10.63 pounds. 




Fig. 5. Sectional View of Stoker. 



An afternoon was spent in a boiler house having 
stokers like Fig. 5. Some of the boilers were being run 
above their rating, while two were running light, but not 
a particle of smoke came from the chimney. In furnaces 
where the fire was hot the fire was a white, incandescent 
flame. 



Chemicals for Coal. 

With this stoker there is an opening under the coal 
hopper, where a sHce bar can be put down under the 
fire to break it up if necessary, sometimes an important 
item. 

Occasionally a man will come along with a chem- 
ical, which he will dissolve in water and sprinkle over 
coal, and will show you the coal takes fire almost as 
readily as wood, and will give off more flame with hard 
coal than when the coal is used without it. He usually 
succeeds in selling large amounts for a snug sum. 

A friend who thought of taking an agency for such 
a mixture wanted the writer to make a test. The test 
showed that more fuel was required with it than with 
the untreated coal. 

A short time after this the company had a cargo 
of coal to use that had been sunk in salt water and 
raised again. It burned in the same manner as the 
chemically treated coal. Salt may not be the chemical 
used, but salt will do the same work. 

This can be tried in the kitchen stove. When new 
coal is put on sprinkle on a little salt and note how 
quickly the coal becomes ignited and the nice flame. 

Boiler Feeding. 

In feeding boilers, care should be exercised to keep 
the water level uniform, for two reasons — first, so that 
the water shall come from the heater as hot as possible, 
and, second, if the water level is continually changing 
the weight in the boiler is changing with it, which sub- 
jects the boiler to different bending strains. 

Should the water be found low after an absence for a 
time, and the pump has been running and supplying the 

.19 



Feeding the Boiler. 

usual amount of water, the water cannot be very low 
unless there is some leak of water from the boiler, or from 
some person opening a steam valve and drawing of large 
quantities of steam. If the latter, the condition of the 
fire will indicate it, if there be an automatic damper. If 
the damper be regulated by hand, the steam will be low. 
By covering the fire, either with fresh coal or ashes, all 
danger of further overheating will cease. The steam, 
however, will run down rapidly and load will be thrown 
off the engine, as speed cannot be maintained, so that it 
is not important that the engine should continue to run. 

We have the following conditions : After the fire is 
covered the circulation in the boiler ceases and the water 
level is slightly lowered. There is a slight circulation, 
but in the same form as an ordinary kettle, if the engine 
continues to run ; but the water level will lower gradually 
as it cools down. 

Letting the pump continue to operate will, under 
the new conditions, slowly raise the water line if its speed 
be maintained. Should the pump slow down with the 
d^dreasing pressure the water will not rise until load is 
thrown off the engine ; after that it will rise. 

Opening the safety valve or any other valve will raise 
the water at first, but it will be very much lowered after 
the steam pressure is reduced. 

Suppose there be lOO pounds steam pressure and 
the boiler contains 6,000 pounds of water, the tempera- 
ture of water will be 341°, or a little over 341 heat units. 
If no water goes into the boiler, but steam is all blown 
down to atmospheric pressure, and 212° temperature of 
the water. 

Six thousand pounds of water, with 341 heat units 
per pound, will be 2,046,000 heat units in the water. 

20 



Heat Units — Duplex Pumps. 

Six thousand pounds of water, with 212 heat units 
per pound, will be 1,272,000 heat units in the water. 

The difference between the two is 774,000 heat units, 
which has been given up in evaporating water that has 
gone off in form of steam, 966 H. U. being the amount 
per pound required to evaporate the water. 774,000-^ 
966=800 pounds, which is the amount of water that has 
been evaporated from 6,000 pounds of water at 100 
pounds pressure in reducing the pressure to the atmos- 
phere, or 13 per cent. 

This is one of the points that examining boards 
make a strong point on, but they are not of the same idea. 
One board will want the engine and pump stopped and 
let all valves remain as they are. Another will want the 
engine and pump left running, while still another will 
want the engine and pump stopped and safety valve 
opened. 

It should be remembered that the above refers to a 
single boiler. When there is a battery of boilers it is 
evident that the stop valve on the offending boiler must be 
closed, and then the only complication is as to the policy 
of opening the safety valve or not. 

With a shell boiler there should be a fusible plug in 
the rear head. This plug should be filled with pure tin 
that melts at 440°. If this plug has not melted, it is evi- 
dent that the water has not fallen low enough, or that the 
fire was not hot enough to do any harm. 

Pumps for Boiler Feeding. 

A duplex pump will produce less strain and shaking 
of pipes than a single pump. 

It seems strange at this late day that there can be 

21 



Pumps that Pound. 

found books and men that will claim that a power pump 
is a cheaper method of feeding a boiler than a steam 
pump, regardless of conditions. Where non-condensing 
engines arc used it is true; but not with compound 
engines. 

One place ma}^ be taken as a sample. 

This place has a number of engines and boiler plants 
and the manager somewhere having read that power 
pumps are more economical has put in power pumps 
and taken the feed, either from hot wells with water at 
no degrees, and in some instances right from cold 
streams, and put the same through economizers. 

A power pump is not flexible and runs at its max- 
imum and the surplus must be pumped against the 150 
to 170 pounds pressure and go to waste. The suction 
can be throttled, but will make a pounding pump. 

It is only with non-condensing engines that power 
pumps are the cheaper to use as with a condensing plant 
the heater will usually condense all the exhaust from 
the pumps, etc., and all the heat from the steam is car- 
ried back to the boilers, while if the pumps are driven 
from the main engine or from motor, the latent heat of 
steam producing the power goes out with the condensing 
water. 

In the place mentioned they were running small 
engines driving dynamos, the engines using not less than 
5 pounds of coal per horse-power, then driving the power 
pump by motor and half the water pumped up to 150 
pounds pressure going to waste, and then pumping cold 
water to the economizer, which delivered it to the boilers 
at less than 180 degrees.- c 

In two cases the pumps were driven by belts from 
the main engine, the steam from the condenser pumps 

22 



Scale Removing Solvents. 

going out to heat up the river. 

Had they used steam pumps and put the exhaust 
from the boiler feed and condenser through a heater, 
then through the economizer, they could have delivered 
the water to boilers at 300 degrees. With the water 
going to the economizer cold, or nearly so, the tubes 
sweat and the soot cakes, on to the tubes, breaking the 
scrapers and rendering the economizer but of little value. 

Scale in Boilers. 

Where water contains lime, some agent should be 
employed to neutralize it, which can be done with a 
carbonate of lime. Kerosene will sometimes do this very 
nicely, and is a handy dissolvent, because it can feed 
constantly in the same manner as cylinder oil. Sal-soda 
is a good neutralizer, but when carbonate and sulphate 
both are present there is need of a strong astringent. 
This is found in tannic acid. Tannin can be procured 
in "japonica" that comes from Japan, or from ''cutch," 
which is acacia catechu, and comes from the East Indies. 
Gambier is another form, and comes from Africa. 

To make this preparation ready for use, take 50 
pounds of sal-soda and 30 pounds of japonica, or cutch ; 
put in any old barrel that will hold about 50 ballons ; fill 
half full of water and boil until dissolved, then fill in 
water. 

If a water tube boiler is badly scaled, put in a 
gallon of the mixture for each 100 horse-power for 
three or four days, at which time most of the scale 
should be removed, when the quantity can be reduced 
until the right amount is ascertained. 

With a shell boiler more care is necessary, as it 
throws down the scale very fast, so that the preparation 

23 



Electrical Boiler Cleaner. 

should not be put in until two or three days before clean- 
ing, otherwise enough scale might accumulate over the 
fire sheets to burn them. 

These preparations when made up and sold under 
fancy names, are sold for about 60 cents per gallon, 
which makes kerosene a cheap substitute. 

The sal-soda should be procured for less than 2 
cents per pound, and the crude cutch or japonica for not 
to exceed 6 cents, so that it will cost less than 10 cents 
per gallon. 

There are a number of makers of scale resolvents 
that will analyze the water and mix chemicals accurately 
to do the required work. 

Boiler Cleaning. 

In about 1865 there was an electric arrangement 
invented to charge the metal with an electric current, 
as shown in Fig. 6. 

This consisted of a number of copper points radiat- 
ing from a common center and from ten to twelve inches 
in diameter. This was placed inside and near the top 
of the boiler about four feet from the front end, the 
points nearly touching the shell. From the center a 
wire was led to an insulated plug about the same distance 
from rear of boiler and thence out to a battery. The 
boiler by this means was kept charged with an electric 
current and was free from scale. Sometimes Httle par- 
ticles would be found as thick as paper, but these were 
rare. 

This instrument was attached to a boiler for $80, and 
because people thought the price exorbitant very few 
were applied. All the neighbors paid as much per year 
for scale solvents. 

24 



Potatoes as a Boiler Cleaner. 

The feed and blow-off in this boiler was through a 
1 3^ -inch pipe in the front head, a connection common 
in those days ; there was no hand hole in the rear head, 
and from all that could be seen the boiler was perfectly 
clean. After a time a hand hole was cut in the rear 
head and about two bushels of dirt was found banked 
up against it. A bottom blow-off remedied all this. 

Some years afterward the engineer had occasion 
to want something that would keep the scale from form- 
ing in boilers and wrote to his former employers for the 




Fig. 6. Electric Boiler Cleaner. 1865. 



name of the maker, asking also if it continued to do good 
work. He received a reply that the battery got out of 
order and it had been disconnected, and that a half 
bushel of potatoes put in the boiler each week would do 
for compounds. 

For the neutralizing of the scale-forming elements 
in the water there have been numberless compounds pre- 
pared, but most good ones have been expensive. Kero- 
sene oil has been used as much as any one thing, fed in 
the same way as cylinder oil in a steam cylinder, and in 
many cases has given excellent results. 

25 



Utilizing Waste Heat. 

Probably the most extensively used and at the same 
time the cheapest is the carbonate of soda. This acts on 
carbonate of lime, rendering it soluble in water and in a 
state where it will not bake. The carbonic acid takes 
up by the alkaline carbonate is liberated again by heat 
and the soda is in its original state and ready to act 
again as before, which accounts for the necessity of 
using such a small quantity. A receptacle should be 
made for it and after disolving it should be fed contin- 
uously. From one to two pounds per loo horse-power 
boiler per day will do the work in fair shape. Soda ash 
will require more ; caustic soda less. 

When it comes to feeding water with clay and lime, 
and in some cases saline matter, there are but two ways ; 
a surface condenser or an efficient filter. Where surface 
condensers are used, vertical engines are desirable, and 
sometimes necessary, as will be mentioned later under the 
subject of cylinder oils. 

Special Boiler Setting. 

Figure 7 represents a tubular boiler set to utilize 
waste heat from a steel furnace. The cut shows the 
original setting. There was a 9-inch space under the 
boiler and the waste gases could go through the tubes 
and under the shell. They preferred to go under the 
shell, and made but little steam. 

The boilers were then let down on to the brick and 
the space under the boiler entirely closed, thus causing 
all the gases to go through the tubes. This raised the 
steaming capacity over 30 per cent., but still there was 
not sufficient steam made from the waste heat for the 
work required. A battery of boilers were put in to be 
fired by hand, gases going under the boiler and through 

26 



Cooling Boilers for Cleaning. 

the tubes in the usual manner, and then over the top to 
chimney. As there was a good draft and tgg coal was 
burned, these boilers would make a great deal more 
steam than those with the waste heat, and there were 
those in authority who thought that was the only way 
to set a boiler, and that if the first boilers were set that 
way, the boilers requiring coal could be shut down. So 
these boilers were raised to their original positions, 
arranged so the gases would go under, then through the 




Boilers Set to Utilize Waste Heat. 



tubes, then over the top, and they did not do as well as 
in the first design and were finally taken out and aban- 
doned. 

These boilers were among one engineer's first expe- 
rience, and it was here he got an insight into cooling off 
boilers for cleaning. He was assistant here and worked 
under orders. 

It will be noticed that there is a door at each end of 
the boiler. Saturday nights both of these doors were 
opened, as well as all the doors on the furnace. It was 

27 



Leaky Tubes from Over Heating. 

his duty Sunday forenoon to draw the water out of the 
boilers and refill them with fresh water. After a few 
months the tubes on the end of the boiler towards the fire 
commenced to leak. A peck of horse manure was put 
in each boiler every week, which for a time kept the leak 
down, but finally a boilermaker had to be called, who 
reported that the fire ends of the boilers had been burned. 
As the boilers had had the best of care, and water had 
never been low, and as a good quality of water had been 
used and frequently changed, this was a surprise and 
could hardly be believed. The fact remained, however, 
that that end of the boilers had been overheated suffi- 
ciently to cause the tubes to leak. 

He studied over the problem, and to his mind the 
cause was plain. It has been mentioned that the two 
doors shown were both opened. This, in effect, was 
nearly the same as leaving them both closed, as the door 
at base of chimney was as large as the area of chimney, 
and would supply all the air the chimney could take, so 
that none entered the other door, and the result was hot 
brickwork and a hot boiler when the water was changed. 
He remembered this, and in his practice when he was in 
charge of boilers, always left ash and firedoors opened, 
as well as the damper, and no other doors that could 
interfere with the draft through the boiler, and never 
had a leaky tube sheet or shell from any strains set up in 
changing water. The boiler was always cool enough so 
that the deposit would not bake on, the brickwork was 
cool so that the boiler was not overheated, and plenty of 
water could be used for washing without cooling por- 
tions of the boiler suddenly. 

As an illustration of the oposite policy which obtains 
in many places, he was sent to sl place to attempt to 

28 



Cooling off Boilers. 

reduce their coal bills. He saw that the fires were 
banked in such a manner that steam was blowing through 
the safety valves continually during the times the boilers 
were idle, with the result that the valves were leaking 
badly. 

He recommended new safety valves, a condenser 
and two or three other minor changes, and put them in. 
The boilers were 5x16 tubulars in a small electric station. 

In the afternoon he told the regular engineer that he 
wished to put on the safety valves the next day, and 
when he shut down at midnight to have his fire out and 
leave dampers and firedoors opened, so that steam would 
be down. 

In the morning he found firedoors and dampers 
closed and front flue door open, and steam up to nearly 
running pressure. Opening the flue door had stopped 
any possible entrance of air. It was three hours before 
any work could be done, and as some of the pipings had to 
be changed, it made a lively day's work. 

When the regular engineer came around after dinner 
he was asked why he had not carried out instructions 
about having the boiler cool. He replied he was told he 
must not allow any cold air to strike the tubes in rear 
end of boiler, as it would surely cause them to leak ; that 
the inspector had instructed him, and he had been very 
careful not to let any cold air under the boilers. Being 
asked for his procedure when changing water ; he left 
everything closed, pumped in cold water and let it out 
until he got it cooled down so the steam was gone, 
then let out the water and pumped the boiler up. Asked 
if he realized the strains set up when letting out the 
water from the boiler surrounded by hot brickwork and 
filling the same, his reply was always the same — he could 

29 



Leaks in a Cool Boiler. 

not let cold air under the boiler, as it would cause the 
tubes to leak; he had been told so by the inspector, and 
he did not want his tubes to leak. 

By this time the boiler was cooled down, as well 
as the brick. A cool boiler will shaw leaks when it will 
not when heated, and the seam in head commenced to 
leak over the firedoor. It was pointed out to him that 
the leak was caused by the boiler being enclosed in hot 
fire brick while the water was let out; that the boiler in 
contact with the brick got excessively hot, and that the 
cold water put in had strained this joint so that it leaked ; 
that his tubes and seams in the shell would go the same 
way in a short time ; that if he opened his doors and 
damper he would not get cold air on his tubes for a long 
time, as the air passing through the hot furnace would 
be hot when it got to the rear end, and that everything 
had to cool down together. Any explanation had no 
effect. When the engineer got everything together it 
was Saturday evening, and tl it evening being the heaviest 
load, he started up with one boiler, much to the regular 
engineer's concern, as it had been hard work for two 
boilers to carry the Saturday evening load. The one 
boiler carried the load easily. 

The engineer heard no more from this job for two 
years, when he was again sent there to put in a new 
boiler. 

The regular engineer's care to allow no cold air to 
reach the rear end of the boiler had resulted in leaks in all 
the seams, patches over the fire, leaky tubes in the rear 
end, which had been rerolled until used up so that one 
boiler had to be taken out and one 5^x16 put in its 
place. The engineer learned that shortly after leaving 
the first time the two boilers were deemed necessary and 

30 



Another Waste Gas Boiler. 

finally blowers had to be put in. On account of the 
manner of cleaning, here were two boilers less than four 
years old with every tube and seam strained apart and 
finally condemned, and still they had not let go and killed 
anyone. He has found a number of instances where the 
practice is to leave furnace doors and dampers closed and 
the attempt made to clean boilers th that condition, and 
the result was always the same, although the complete 
destruction is sometimes longer delayed. To clean a 
boiler thoroughly the boiler must be cool, and the desposit 
must be soft. To prevent strains on the boilers the 
change of temperature must be gradual, but when cold 
water is put on hot plates, or tubes, leaks will occur soon. 

Incidents. 

Figure 8 is a type of boiler that was put in a flue 
taking waste gases from crucible casting furnaces. 
There were three rows of bottle shaped projections, 6 
inches in diameter and 2 feet long. The necks were 
3 inches in diameter and were screwed into a bottom 
shell. There were partitions through the center, and 
one-half of the neck with this partition extended into 
the boiler about 3 inches higher than the other half, which 
was level. This was to insure circulation. This type 
worked very nicely and was easily cleaned. 

The arrangement shown in Fig." 7, being in a steel 
mill, provision against frost was not first class. There 
was a man whose duty it was to fire up the furnaces and 
get them hot enough Monday mornings to commence 
work on time, and also to watch the boilers. One morn- 
ing he made haste to wake the engineer up about 4 
o'clock with the cheerful news that there was 160 pounds 
of steam on the boiler intended to carry but 90, and that 

•31 



Imagination and Leaky Joints. 

the steam was coming out of every joint. He hurried 
to the scene and found all the joints all right, as well as 
the safety valves, but there was 1 60 pounds indicated by 
the gauge. An investigation revealed the fact that the 
gauge pipe was frozen, and the expansion had extended to 
the spring. Imagination had seen all the joints leaking. 
In another place he was aroused by the watchman 



A A A A A A A :\ A A 



\J w w LJ LJ LJ VfcJ L- 



Waste" 
Heat- 




"Waste 
-Heat 



Fig. 8. A Boiler to Use Waste Heat. 

with a request to come right down to the boiler room, 
as one of the boilers showed 165 pounds. He explained 
to the excited man that it was all right, that the boilers 
were connected and the gauge showing 80 pounds was 
correct, while that showing 165 had a leak in the spring, 
allowing enough steam to enter to expand the spring by 
heat. No explanation would satisfy, and he was obliged 



32 



Points About Gage Glasses. 

to go down and make sure that it was all right. Gauges 
that are in very hot or very cool places may sometimes 
show a little out because of the extreme temperatures. 

Sometimes a gauge under high pressure will vibrate 
excessively, even when the cock is closed all that is pos- 
sibly, and still have the gauge indicate. In such cases put 
a quarter-inch globe valve about four feet from the gauge, 
and that and the cock will check the vibrations, as so 
much will be taken up by the enclosed water between the 
tw^o that energy on the gauge is gone. To keep glass 
gauges, gauge cocks and all places where there are slight 
leaks, and where salts from the water leave a deposit, 
put on ordinary machine oil, or wipe them over occa- 
sionally with a greasy waste. 

At one place the engineer was awakened by his fire- 
man and told that something was the matter with one 
of the boilers. This was one of the early types of water- 
tube boilers, the end of every tube and header being a 
ground ball joint, with the idea that expansion could take 
place without strains and without leaks. There were 
two or three leaky joints, but looking into the furnace 
revealed the fact that all of the tubes that could be seen 
were at a bright red heat. 

The fireman had changed the water Sunday and left 
the water at a proper level. The blow-off valve was a 
2-inch globe. A piece of clinker had in some way got 
into the hollow on the bottom, and the guide stem had 
reached it, so that the valve had leaked sufficiently to 
let nearly all the water out. The fireman, knowing he 
had left the water all right, had not examined it in the 
morning before firing up. 

Sometimes a man will try his gauges and take it for 
granted that the small amount of water issuing there- 

33 



Taking Water From Stream. 

from comes from the boiler instead of lying in the gage. 
In one case a fireman reported to his engineer that a 
boiler being heated by waste heat was not taking any 
water. This boiler, which was an upright water tubular, 
had a pipe extending from top to bottom, in which was 
the gauge column with a valve at the bottom of the pipe. 
This boiler was in a secluded place, where workmen used 
to get to do their heavy loafing, and some of them had 
closed the valve at the bottom of the water column and the 
gauges showed water all right. The boiler was burned 
up. 

The boiler, with the clinker in the blow-off, had the 
leaky joints reground and was in use for some time after- 
wards. It was arranged with tile placed in the tubes so 
that the gases passed to rear end, then along a portion 
of the tubes to the front end and under the drums to the 
chimney. 

It was finally abandoned, because "it could not be 
cleaned." It was impossible to get the ashes out of the 
tubes on top of the tile partition, and when it was finally 
taken, thirty cartloads were taken from those places. 

Strainers. 

Wherever water is taken from a stream for use for 
power purposes, such as pumps, condensers, etc., there 
should be a good system of strainers. Where possible 
or practicable to use them, a pair of strainers, like Fig. 
9, is easily controlled. The frame shoud be made from 
3x1^ inch finished material, and brass rods put through, 
as shown. These help to stiffen the frame, but their 
principal use is to keep the screen in shape, as the pres- 
sure of the water against a partially clogged strainer 

34 



Plan of Strainers. 

would soon ruin it were it not supported. Over this 
should be fastened the copper wire netting. 






Fig. 9. Strainer Frame and Rack. 

A cheaper strainer is made by punching a sheet of 
copper. These holes may be punched with machinery. 

35 



Double Strainers. 

The strainer should extend over the framework 1%-!}^ 
inches, and be securely fastened. Then there should be 
a cleat put over that and the nails driven through the 
frame and clinched. At the top should be a top board 
with a hole sufficiently large to admit getting hold of it 
with the two hands for drawing it out. 

There should be two of these, as shown by the section 
below. Fig 9. This should be anchored in such a 
manner that it will keep its shape and be made tight at 
the sides and bottom. 

The strainers should be used one at a time. When 
the strainer in use becomes foul the clean one should be 
put in and the foul one taken out and cleaned. To do 
this easily it should be thoroughly dried, as the slime 
from most waters, together with the other accumula- 
tions, makes a paste that is difficult to remove when wet. 
To do good work there should be at least ten times the 
area through the holes of the pipe or conduit it supplies. 
Small strainers stop up too quickly. 

If deemed necessary, a solid gate can be made of the 
same dimensions as the frame of the strainer and used 
as a gate to shut off the water when occasion requires. 

Where water is to be taken from a running stream 
and it is necessary to build a little dam, the proper method 
is that shown in cross-section in Fig. 10 and plan in 
Fig. II. If possible, arrange to have the strainer put in 
in the bend of the stream. If this cannot be done, build 
the dam the highest at the side of the stream opposite 
from the strainer, so as to throw the larger part of the 
water over the strainer. Excavate a place in front of the 
dam and build a heavy bottom of concrete, the top of it 
being about two diameters of the pipe lower than the 
bed of the stream below the dam. Concrete the side of 

36 



Dam and Strainer. 




Fig. lo. Dam for taking Water from Running Stream. 

the Stream for a space from the dam to 20 feet below 
the strainer to prevent washing of the bank. The 
strainer should be put across the flow of water, as shown. 
This should be made from sheet copper with punched 




Fig. II. Plan or Top View of Dam and Strainer. 



Z7 



Water From Dirty Streams. 

holes. The water flowing over the dam passes the 
strainer so strongly and rapidly that it washes away all 
debris of every kind and the strainer is always clean. 

A strainer put in as shown above has been in use 
ten years, and has never been foul nor required any 
attention. 

When a strainer is put in where the water is slug- 
gish, the drain through the strainer will attract all float- 
ing material, and when drawn to the strainer there is 
nothing to carry it away, and soon there is trouble. 
When a strainer is put into an eddy, unless the move- 
ment of the water is very rapid, the same clogging 
process goes on. 

There are places where the only available water 
supply will be from a small stream carrying a large 
amount of debris of various kinds and the stream will 
be sluggish and the only way will be to excavate a place 
to put in a suction pipe and strainer. Here everything 
will move towards the strainer and it soon becomes foul 
and requires attention. 

If it is impracticable to make strainers after the plan 
in Fig. 9, there are double strainers and foot valves 
made to meet this emergency. This arrangement con- 
sists of a foot valve and strainer. Over the strainer is 
put a sliding strainer, which can be lifted and cleaned. 
When it slides back to place it scrapes off such material 
as has accumulated on the inside strainer. 

There are conditions when none of the methods 
named could be of use, such as taking water from an iron 
penstock, or through a pipe from a canal on the side 
used for the tow-path. In such cases there should be 
used two boxes with a strainer in each. These strainers 
are put in the pipe line at some convenient place of 

38 



Material for Boilers. 

access. It is necessary to place a valve each side of each 
strainer box, so that the strainer can be removed and 
cleaned. 

Strength of Boilers. 

There are many experiences to be found in the 
boiler-room. We will take for example a tubular boiler, 
as this is the simplest form, and many points about a 
tubular boiler apply to all. 

The first thing is the material from which it is made. 
Of late years steel is the general material. Where the 
plates are in contact with the fire, firebox steel should be 
used, and flange steel can be used for the heads. The 
firebox steel should not contain enough to exceed .04 of i 
per cent, of either phosphorus or sulphur. 

Phosphorus makes the steel cold short, and sulphur 
hot short. Carbon adds tensile strength, but the higher the 
tensile strength the lower will be the ductility. In some 
cases it has been the practice among the workmen, when 
they found a sheet was not coming up to the tensile 
strength, to spray water over it when hot. This will be 
detected in the ductility later, if the physical test is made 
by a disinterested party, and for this reason it sometimes 
pays to have a firm that makes a specialty of tests make an 
inspection of the material, both physically and chemically. 

A plate having a tensile strength of 65,000 pounds 
per square inch will make a strong shell, and is not sufii- 
ciently high to interfere materially with its ductility. 

It is not possible, however, to get all plates just 
alike in tensile strength, so that plates should be not less 
than 58,000 nor more than 65,000 pounds tensile strength. 
They should stand the test of being bent cold around a 
rod equalling their own thickness, without cracking, and 

39 



Rules for Strength of Boilers. 

should stand the same test after heating and plunging 
into cold water. 

After this test there should be no laminations, blisters 
nor other mechanical defects. Each plate should be 
plainly stamped with the maker's name, and with its 
thickness, quality and tensile strength in a place that can 
be plainly seen after the boiler is erected. 

Boilers should have the longitudinal seams made 
with butt joints, with double covering strips and triple 
riveted. After steel came into use it was discovered that 
the lapped double riveted joint was unsafe. This joint 
had a way of causing the plate to crack just under the 
lap on the inside of the boiler, where it was impossible 
to discover it before it showed itself by leaking or 
letting go. 

A well-designed single-riveted seam has 54 per cent, 
of the strength of the solid plate, a double-riveted seam 
70 per cent., and a butt strap 87 per cent. Sometimes 
specifications for drums in a water tube boiler call for 
the roundabout seams to be double riveted. The party 
sending out the specifications insisted that, for the pres- 
sure they wanted to carry, it was absolutely necessary. 
The drums were 3 feet in diameter, and the metal 9-16 
of an inch thick. 

Take the well-known rule for the longitudinal 
strength of a cylinder : 

Thickness X tensile strength 



radius in inches. 

9 • 
we have — X 60000 
16 

= 1875 

18 

40 



Boiler Calculations. 

and with butt strap joint of 87 per cent. 163 1 pounds 
bursting pressure. 

We now take the roundabout joint : 
tensile strength X thickness X circumference 

area of head 

= bursting pressure 
or 

9 

— X 60000 X 113 
16 

= 3746 lbs. 

1018 
and taking 54 per cent, for a single-riveted seam, we 
have a bursting pressure of 2,022 pounds, or 400 pounds 
greater capacity than the longitudinal seam. If we take 
70 per cent, for the double-riveted roundabout seam, we 
will have 2,622 pounds or 1,000 lbs. greater. There will 
never be a longitudinal joint made that will need a dou- 
ble-riveted roundabout joint. 

Allowing a factor of safety of 5 for the longitudinal 
joint, we have a safe load of 344 pounds, and allowing 
a factor of safety of 6 for the roundabout seam we have 
347 pounds as the safe load. 

Tubular boilers require stays above the tubes. First 
find the area to be braced. Two inches above the tubes 
and 3 inches around the shell need not be taken into 
account. 

The distance between stays should be square root of 

6,900 

working pressure X diameter of bolts 
Instead of 6,900 use of 5,530 for salt water and 5,000 for 
copper bolts. 

Tubes should be of wrought iron. Steel tubes 

41 



Too Many Tubes. 

require annealing, are too stiff, and will leak sooner than 
iron. Tubes give a cheap heating surface, and in order 
to get a boiler of large capacity it is the practice of some 
builders to put in all the tubes possible, so as to make 
the horse-power large. For this purpose they put in 
tubes away above the center of the boiler, reducing the 
area of the surface of the water for disengaging the 
steam, and a pulsating boiler is the result. The tubes are 
simply an economizer and are not as important as some 
other things. 

When the temperature in the furnace is 2,200 
degrees the shell will absorb the heat, so that when it 
enters the flues it is down to 1,000 degrees, and not over 
one-half of that can be absorbed by the tubes with 
modern high pressure. 

Should an excessive number be put in, the hot gases 
will only go through a portion of them. Tubes which 
are too small break up the gases so much that the draft 
is restricted, and they become easily choked with soot. 

Boiler Settings and Fittings. 

Water issuing easily from the open end of a vertical 
pipe will assume the form shown in Fig. 12. 

When entering a pipe, water or gas will assume the 
same form, shown in Fig. 13, so that the volume would 
be represented by the small cross-section, rather than by 
the area of the tube. 

In putting in large pipes in water powers the pipe 
can be enlarged at the intake for what is termed the 
"entry head," and the pipe filled. This cannot be done 
with the ends of tubes in boilers. Could it be, the velocity 
through the tubes would be greater and the deposit of 
soot less. 

42 



Feed Pipes — Circulation. 

Tubes should be put in so as to obstruct the circu- 
lation of water within the boiler as little as possible. A 
free and full circulation of water counts for capacity and 
economy and is more important than a few extra tubes. 

Care should be taken that the tubes are of full thick- 
ness of metal, also that the material for the shell is the 
specified thickness at the thinnest part. 

The feed pipe should discharge at the coolest part 



Fig. 12. 





Fig. 13. 



Shapes of Water or Gas Entering or Leaving Tubes. 

of the boiler, which will be that portion the farthest 
from the fire. 

One reason for this is that the circulation is the 
least disturbed. The boiler will deliver up the most heat 
from the fire when water is flowing fast over it, so a 
rapid circulation means more rapid taking up of heat and 
easier steaming. 

Where water is admitted directly over the fire in a 



43, 



Boiler Settings. 

sheet boiler, it means leaks at the joint at head of boiler 
and at the first joint near the bridge wall. The correct 
plan is to put the feed at front head, top of tubes and to 
one side of boiler. Carry it to the rear of boiler, then 
across to opposite side and down between shell and tubes. 
The blow-off pipe should extend down to the floor 



^ 



^ 



WMMMMZZL 



'y//////////////////////A 




ri'-''l'''^'r'^rf?' "rH'i 



Fig. 14. Best Location of Blow-ofFpipe and valves. 



level, as shown in Fig. 14. It should be extra heavy iron 
pipe and a casing of larger pipe put around it. Should 
the water get to boiling, it can circulate in this vertical 
pipe, which it would not do with the horizontal pipe 
shown by dotted lines. 

The blow-off valve for high pressures has given a 



44 



About Safety Valves. 

great" deal of trouble. Put on two valves, both extra 
heavy solid disk gate valves with outside screw. 

When using, the valve nearest the boiler is opened 
first and then the other. When closing, the outside is 
closed first. This brings all the wear on the outside 
valve, as the inside is always balanced and moves freely. 
If preferred, an asbestos packed cock can be used for the 
outside valve. 

Lever safety valves have about gone out of date. 
They or single-seat spring valves should never be used 
alone, but there should always be a double seat or ''pop" 
safety valve. The latter, with a rise in pressure of 3 or 4 
pounds, will open wide, and no further rise is possible ; 
while with the two first the pressure may rise 20 to 40 
pounds before the valve will relieve it. For years to 
come, in some cases, lever valves will be used. 

'Tops" are set before leaving the factory. They 
can be changed by tightening or loosening the spring, 
— one side of the hex nut for five pounds, but if this is 
changed very much the ring at the bottom of the valve 
wants changing to preserve the sensitiveness of opening 
and closing. All boilers should have two safety valves. 

The rules for area of safety valves are : For "pop" 
valve allow i square inch area of valve for each 3 square 
feet of grate. For lever valves allow i square inch for 
each 2 square feet of grate ; or, multiply the weight of 
water evaporation per hour by .005 ; the result is area 
of valve disc in square inches. 

The water gage fittings should all be of a heavy 
pattern, and the glass gage ^ inch. The water glass 
gage should have automatic valves in the event of the 
glass breaking, or else levers on the valve stems, with 
chains so that the gage can be shut off. In case the 

45 



Side Walls. 

glass breaks and none of these are at hand, always shut 
off the water, or bottom, valve first. By doing this and 
using care one need not get burned. If steam is shut 
off first, look out. 

When building a bridge wall, put the fire-brick face 
as shown in Fig. 14. 

When the brick on the face are laid up square, the 
tools used in cleaning the fire will gradually knock off the 




Fig. 15. How Side Walls Should Be Built. 



top course, and after a time the whole bridge wall disinte- 
grates. Putting in bricks as shown locks the top brick 
effectually and makes a durable wall. 

When building the side walls the same course should 
be taken in putting in the fire-brick at the furnace as 
shown at the bottom of the bridge wall. This makes 

46 



Fire Brick Arch. 

repairs quickly and cheaply done. This is shown in 
Fig-. 14. These are headers above the clinker line, then 
a stretcher for binding, then all headers, but the top bricks 
are wedged so as to have the top ones embedded. 

This form of construction accomplishes two things : 
The bricks at the bottom burn out, and they can be taken 
out up to the stretcher, which will fall out, leaving the 
remainder of the wall intact. The bottom brick and 
stretcher can be replaced without the necessity of taking 
down the whole face. 

Where air space is left, it should be 3 or 4 inches 
next to the outer course of brick. 




Fig. 16. Making a Fire Brick Arch. 



The walls should be sloped away, from the boiler as 
shown, leaving a space not less than 3 inches from the 
shell until the wall closes in to the boiler. 

Fig. 16 is a design for making an arch with fire brick. 

It consists of an iron form, as shown by the heavy 
line which can be either of wrought iron bent into proper 
shape for any length or radius of arch desired, or it may 
be of cast iron. 

The brick are built into it tight and the structure is 
set into place. 

It can be used over doors or at rear of boilers. 

As the metal is protected by the brick, the arch will 
last until the brick are burned out, if no mortar is put 
between them ; that is, if the brick are laid solid. 

47 



Furnace Plates. 

For a plate over the furnace the style shown in Fig. 
17 is the best, if cast iron is used. This was designed by 
the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection & Insurance Com- 
pany. 

With this form the iron next the fire can expand 
until the spaces are entirely closed, and the plate will still 
keep its shape. The casting can be made in the form of 
a box, so as to take in the sides and top of the door ; but 
it should all be serrated, as shown, on the side towards 
the fire. 

Shell boilers are usually supported by two lugs on 
each side. The rear lug should rest on rollers. It would 



AmAAAAAA 



Fig. 1 7 . Best Cast Iron Plate for Over Furnace 

be a better plan to put up columns and channel bars and 
hang the boilers from these, after the manner in which 
tube boilers are supported, so as to have them entirely free 
from the brickwork. This would make the boilers more 
expensive, and as one reason for putting in this type of 
boiler is the low first cost, this form of support is rarely 
attempted. 

Fig 14 shows a pipe leading from the safety valve for 
a distance and then turned up. This is unsafe unless 
there be a firm support under the ell. Wherever there is 
an open end just beyond an ell, the ell should be well sup- 
ported. Pipes like this will break open the valve case 
when blowing off. One man had one ear partially torn off 

48 



Floor Plates. 

at one time with a ^-inch drain pipe put up in a similar 
manner. 

There should also be a drain at the ell. The better 
plan is not to put any pipe from the safety valve, but let it 
blow directly into the boiler-room. If this is done, one 
can always see just what the valve is doing. 

At one place where the pipe from the safety valve 
led out of doors in a horizontal direction, the valve leaked, 




Fig. 1 8. Floor Plates. 



and one cold Saturday night the pipe filled with ice. The 
fires were banked, but during Sunday night the boiler 
got to making steam, and while the safety valve did its 
duty the steam could not get away, and an explosion was 
the result. 

For a floor for boiler-house put in Portland cement 
concrete. Where no teaming is to be done on it, 4 inches 
will be sufficiently thick. Where teams bring in the coal 
it should be 6 inches. There should be a drain at the 

49 



Draining of Floors. 

corner of each boiler, leading down into an underground 
drain. 

The floor should slope in all directions to this drain. 
When this is done all water flows away quickly and the 
floor can be washed at any time. There should be a i- 
inch water pipe of cold water brought to the boiler-house, 
if the pumps are in another place, and plenty of ^-inch 
hose on hand for wetting ashes and washing the floor. 

In front of the boilers the floor should be of iron, as 
this will not wear out with the shovel and will stand hot 
ashes. 

Front of boiler put down a floor of iron plates like 
Fig. 1 8. These plates are ^ inch thick, diamond tread on 
top and ribbed on the bottom. They are 24x30 inches, 
and can be laid in two rows, so as to make the iron floor 
4 or 5 feet wide, as desired. They are laid in soft cement, 
and should be hammered down to place, when they will 
stand all sorts of hard usage. 



50 



Boiler Explosions. 



T T T 

Boilers explode in all cases from lack of strength 
to sustain the pressure. 

In some cases a sound boiler explodes from nior 
pressure than it was designed to hold. 

Boilers become weakened from many causes. 

Pitting is one cause. 

In some cases the water is of such nature that scale 
is formed, and underneath the scale there will be pitting 
that can be discovered only by the removal of the scale. 
It may be caused by insufficient circulation. 

In a tubular boiler the circulation rises over the 
fire, passes along the top of the rear ; then descends and 
flows along the bottom, when the boiler is properly set 
and worked. 

Should such a boiler be run for any considerable 
portion of the time at one-quarter its duty, the circulation 
would stop before it reached the rear and descend, leav- 
ing the rear of the boiler without circulation, and the 
stagnant warm water at the rear would cause pitting. 

Sometimes acids in the water will cause it. 

One of the worse things is ammonia from sewage 
in the water. 

The writer had a case of this kind, and succeeded 
in stopping the pitting until a better water supply was 
secured, by painting the sheets with red lead and boiled 
linseed oil. 

External corrosion will be caused by water or damp- 
ness getting on the outside of the shell. One of the 

SI 



Destructive Explosions. 

surest things to cause this is water dropping from a 
leaky valve stem or flange joint. 

Internal grooving occurs along the inside of the 
joint and can be caused by the bending strain set up by 
constantly changing temperatures, caused by shutting 
off and turning on the feed frequently, or firing unevenly, 
at times having a very hot fire, then leaving it to burn out 
until it is full of holes. 

When these strains are set up and resisted by the 
stiff seam it opens the surface of the metal at that point 
and makes it easy for impure water to attack that point. 

Unequal expansion will weaken iron so that it will 
let go easily. This is caused by sudden changes in 
temperature by incidents named in the preceding para- 
graph, by the practice of many in cooling off a hot 
boiler by filling it full of cold water several times while 
the brickwork is hot; by regulating the steam pressure 
by opening and closing the furnace doors ; by feeding 
the boiler over the hottest part, thus bringing great 
strains on the boiler at that point and checking the cir- 
culation throughout the entire boiler. 

Boiler explosions are destructive, because of the 
expansive force of steam. A boiler well filled with 
water will be the most destructive, because, as the rup- 
ture occurs and the steam expands and the pressure is 
reduced, the heat in the water liberates a large amount 
of steam instantly. This can be observed when blowing 
water out at the blow-off or at the water gauge. It will 
be noticed how largely the stream of water expands 
and that. a large portion of it appears to be steam. 

At 150 pounds pressure a cubic foot of steam will 
weigh .885 of a pound and the temperature will be 366, 
the heat units 1224. 

52 



Facts About Steam. 

A cubic foot of water at the same temperature will 
weigh 55^ pounds, and the heat units contained will be 
366 X 55/4 = 20220, a large portion of which is ready 
to become steam at a sudden lowering of the tempera- 
ture. 

Sensible heat is that portion that can be measured 
by a thermometer. 

From 32° to boiling the thermometer will register 
the heat added to water, and this heat is termed sensible. 

After the water reaches the boiling point the tem- 
perature is not raised, but the heat is absorbed in evap- 
orating the water. This cannot be measured by a ther- 
mometer and is called latent heat, or the heat of vapori- 
zation. The amount of this heat is determined b}- che 
heat that can be imparted to other bodies when the 
steam is condensed and changed to water at 212°. 

The total heat is the sum of the sensible and latent 
heat. 

The temperature of the steam and water will depend 
upon the pressure. 

At the pressure of the atmosphere the sensible heat 
will be 212°, the latent 996° and total 1178°. The 
weight of a cubic foot will be .038. 

At 100 pounds pressure the sensible heat will be 
338°, the latent 875 and the total 1223. As the pressure 
rises, the total rises slowly, the sensible rapidly, while 
the latent decreases. 

The properties of steam are its sensible, latent and 
total heat, volume and pressure. These are all given 
in steam tables. Most steam tables are given from 32° 
and 15 pounds pressure, and when so given to the steam 
pressure must be added 15 pounds, or rather at 50 
pounds, look forward to 65 pounds, and also add 32° 

53 



Too Light Pipe. 

to the total heat. Thus, if the total heat in steam table 
is given as 1190, by adding 32° to it gives 1222. 

Water is heaviest at 39.1°. As the temperature is 
raised above this, the water expands and grows lighter. 

Because of this property, when°it becomes steam its 
expansion is so great it moves the manufacture and 
commerce of the world. 

All matter other than water continues to contract 
as it grows colder. Unlike everything else, water con- 
tracts and grows dense as the temperature decreases 
until it gets to 39.1°, when it begins to expand, so that 
when it gets to 32° and ice forms the ice is lighter than 
the warmer water and floats on top. Were it not for 
this, when ice formed it would be at the bottom, turning 
the streams into glaciers, destroying all life therein, 
shuting off all water supply and making the northern 
and southern portions of the world a desert. 

Piping. 

In the matter of piping, an important item is the pipe 
itself. It should be of iron, as steel pipe ruins dies and 
the threads are inferior. The pipe should be of full stand- 
ard thickness. The outside must be of standard diameter 
to insure good threads, and if the pipe is thin, the thread 
will go through on one side. If the outside of the pipe 
is not full size, the thread will not be full and a tight joint 
impossible. 

At one place a company decided that it was large 
enough to have a purchasing agent, and this agent bought 
some pipe at a greater discount than the company had 
been getting. The engineer showed the pipe to the sec- 
retary, pointing out to him that it was deficient both in 
weight and thickness, but the secretary, after a talk with 

54 



About the Weld. 

the dealer, decided that the pipe was stamped with the 
name of a maker who had a national reputation and 
that it was all right. The company paid for it in repairs 
later. 

Soon after this the engineer was at the works where 
the pipe *was made, and he asked them how they came 
to put their "name on thin pipe. The reply was that very 
few bought full- weight pipe and very little was made; 
that it came about in this way : A contractor would bid 
low on a job and would buy his pipe by weight ; a dealer 
would try to give a bigger discount than another dealer, 
and he would order his pipe by weight ; a concern would 
get a new purchasing agent, who would try to make a 
better showing, and he would buy of the dealer giving the 
best discounts; so that everything was working together 
to reduce the weight, and of course the thickness, of pipe. 

Another important thing is the weld. Pipe up to and 
including i^-inch is butt welded, and i^^-inch and above 
is lap welded. The weld should be such that it will not 
give out when it is necessary to cut long threads, neither 
should it crush under pipe tongs. There are brands of 
pipe that will stand neither of these tests. 

Another important thing is the threading of pipe and 
fittings. When threading fittings, it is absolutely neces- 
sary, in turning out good work, that the taps be standard 
thread and taper ; that there be a stop, so that the tap will 
go a certain distance and no farther, so that all shall be 
tapped to a uniform depth. When the pipe is threaded, 
equal care should be taken. 

Many accidents have occurred because the taper was 
not right, or the thread was not long enough, and the pipe 
has pulled out. Cases are not rare where a 4-inch pipe 
has been put in with less than five threads. In some cases 

55 



Pipe Threads. 

the taper is too great or the die has been run over it two 
or three times, reducing the end of the thready and though 
the pipe may be screwed in the full length of thread, it 
actually holds only by the imperfect threads at the bot- 
tom, and all others are soon corroded. 

The short and imperfect thread on pipes is usually 

Standard Pipe and Pipe Threads. 



lis* ks?j* — E — 4 

I • i 2 ,""< PCBrtCTTMItC*0 




STANDARD 

PIPE 

AND 

PIPE 

THREADS, 



A = outside diameter of perfect thread. 

B = inside diameter of pipe. 

C = root diameter of thread at end of pipe. 
D == outside diameter of thread at end of pipe. 
E = length of perfect thread. 

7"== total length of thread, 
G == length of perfect thread plus two threads. 

BRIGGS' FORMULA. 

E = perfect thread = (4,8 + o.8 A) P. 

P = pitch of thread == — . 

N 



N= number of threads. 
F = length of taper at top. 
Taper ^« to one foot. 



I 

N 



Height of thread = 
<jr «= length of taper at bottom. 

56 



Standard Pipe Tables. 

made when piping is cut where the work is put up and 
the men have hand machines. The dies are usually dull, 
and the men stop as soon as they have a thread long 
enough to screw up and make a tight joint. 

The thread and taper for pipes that have been gener- 
ally adopted are known as the "Briggs standard." 



size. 


Threid. 


A 


B 


c 


D 


E 


F 


6 


i 


27 


.405 


.270 


.334 


.393 


.19 


.41 


.264 


i 


18 


.540 


.364 


.433 


.522 


.29 


.62 


.402 


k 


18 


.675 


.494 


.567 


.656 


.30 


.63 


.408 


i 


14 


.840 


.623 


.702 


.816 


.39 


.82 


.534 


5 


14 


1.050 


.824 


.911 


1.025 


.40 


.83 


.546 


1 


^U 


1.315 


1.048 


1.144 


1.283 


.51 


1.03 


.683 


M 


1H 


1.860 


1.380 


1.488 


L627 


.54 


1.06 


.707 


n 


11i 


1.900 


1.611 


1.727 


1.866 


.55 


1.07 


,724 


2 


IH 


2.375 


2.087 


2.200 


2.339 


.58 


1.10 


.757 


2i 


8 


2.875 


2.468 


2.618 


2.818 


.89 


1.64 


1.138 


3 


8 


3.500 


3.067 


3'243 


3.443 


.95 


1.70 


1.200 


3i 


8 


4.000 


3.548 


3.738 


3.938 


1.00 


1.75 


1.250 


4 


8 


4.500 


4.026 


4.233 


4.443 


1.05 


1.80 


1.30G 


4^ 


8 


5.000 


4.508 


4.733 


4.933 


1.10 


1.85 


1.350 


5 


8 


5.863 


5.045 


5.289 


5.489 


1.1G 


1.91 


1.406 


6 


8 


6.625 


6.065 


6.347 


6.547 


1.26 


2.01 


1.513 


7 


8 


7.625 


7.023 


7.340 


7.540 


1.36 


2.11 


1.612 


. 8 


8 


8.625 


7.981 


8.332 


; 8.532 


1.46 


2.21 


1.712 


9 


8 


9.625 


8.937 


9.324 


9.524 


1.56 


2.31 


1.812 


10 


8 


10.750 


10.019 


10.445 


10.645 


1.675 


2.425 


1.925 


11 


8 


12.000 


11.224 


11.694 


11.894 


1.80 


2.55 


2.050 


12 


8 


13.000 


12.180 


12.685 


12.885 


1.90 


2.65 


2.150 



The threads have an angle of 6o degrees, but are 
rounded off slightly at top and bottom, so that the depth 
of the thread is only four-fifths as great as it would be 
if the threads were sharp. The outside surface of the 
pipe is tapered to a certain distance from the end, the 
standard taper being such that the surface inclines 
towards the axis of the pipe by i in 32. This makes the 
total taper, as measured by the variations in outside diam- 
eter, equal to i in 16, or ^ inch to the foot. The total 
length of the tapered part is given in the table. 

57 



High Pressure Piping. 

For some reason it has become the custom to Hst 
pipe above 12 inches inside diameter as O. D., or out- 
side diameter. At the present writing there is a move- 
ment on foot to list lo-inch pipe and above as O. D. 

Fig. 19 shows a section of 5-inch pipe reproduced 
from The Locomotive. The taper is sHghtly exaggerated 
for greater clearness. Two threads, it will be seen, are 
perfect at the bottom but flat on top, and four are imper- 
fect at both top and bottom. 

Standard weight pipe will withstand any steam 
pressure that will ever be put upon it if the weld is good 
and the threads perfect. 

For hydraulic work up to 1,000 to 1,200 pounds 
pressure, use ordinary pipe and fittings up to ^ inch. 




.- ^—.m--^^,25-ik 1.16^ >i 



Fig. 19. Section of Threaded Pipe. 

Above that, extra heavy is safer. For those high press- 
ures, cast-iron fittings are unsafe and brass should be 
used. 

For high pressures, it is better to use flanges rather 
than couplings, or sockets, as the end of the pipe in a 
flange can be expanded or peened in. This should be 
the case in all work 5 inches and over. The standard 
flanges for heavy work are safe for pressures up to 130 
pounds, but for larger work the flanges should be steel 
castings, or, what is still better, drop-forged steel. Ordi- 
nary cast iron is too weak and even iron in which there is 
sufficient charcoal iron or steel to bring the tensile 
strength up to 26,000 to 28,000 pounds is liable to crack. 

For cold water at high pressures the tongue and 

58 



Flanged Joints. 

groove joint, where the tongue fits the groove accurate- 
ly, with a thin rubber gasket at the bottom makes the best 
joint. If the tongue does not fit the groove this joint is 
but little better than an ordinary faced joint. 

For steam, the use of rubber for packing is inadmis- 
sible. For large work and high pressures, the making up 
of large pipe mains requires close and accurate mechan- 
ical work. It is a machinist's job throughout. The 
flanges require to be fitted as closely as engine work, and 
after the pipe is put in the flanges and expanded, the ends 





Fig. 20. Rabetted Joint. 



Fig. 21. Peened Joint. 



still must be faced off. A rabbetted joint is shown in Fig. 
20, in which a corrugated copper gasket painted with black 
lead is used. This copper gasket packs the flange joint 
and also the end of the thread on the pipe. If accurate- 
ly done, this makes a tight and durable joint, but is very 
expensive. 

Another joint is shown in Fig. 21, but this joint is not 
trimmed after peening. The end of the pipe is peened in 
the form of a round corner down on to the thread. Where 
a pipe does not pulsate it will make a good joint, but 
should there be pulsations so as to strain the thread and 



59 



Joints Without Threads. 



get it loose, it will eventually leak, and it is a bad joint 
to tighten once it leaks at the thread. 

Riveted joints on piping are apt to leak. Some jobs 
of this kind are put up where the joints are all tight, so it 
is claimed. The engineer never saw one of these jobs. 



Fig. 22. 

Van Stone 
Pipe Joint. 





Fig. 23. 

Mitchell 

Pipe Joint. 



All that he had seen, that had rivetted joints, leaked more 
or less. Of course they can be caulked, but his observa- 
tios led him to think that caulking a leaky joint that was 
pulsating was not a thing to look forward to with 
pleasure. 

Fig. 22 Is the Van Stone joint, made by the Walworth 

. 60 



Expansion and Leaks. 

Company. This has no thread and cannot leak between 
pipe and flange. Fig. 5 is a joint made by W. K. Mitchell 
& Co. This cannot leak along the pipe. Both of these 
joints need to be faced, and the flanges can be turned on 
the pipe. In ordinary flange joints the gasket should 
never be extended outside the bolts. 

All drillings should be made in multiples of 4, and 
then flanges can be turned. When a job is being put up, 
all bolt circles and all drilling should be alike for the same 
size of pipe. 



Taking Care of Expansion. 

I find a paper which states that for taking care of 
expansion in steam pipes, expansion joints and corru- 
gated copper have gone out of date and that the proper 
way is to arrange to have a screwed joint acting some- 
thing like a swivel joint in a gas bracket ; except that in 
this case the pipe swings back and forth where the pipe 
is screwed into an ell or the flange of an ell. 

All engineers know the result when a fitting is 
screwed up too far and then has to be backed off. We 
give the fitting another turn and use care next time not 
to go too far. 

Whenever a pipe is put up and the expansion really 
works the thread back and forth, there will be a leak in 
a short time. The reason there are not more leaks is 
because there is spring enough in the pipes so that there 
is no back and forth movement on the thread. 

Expansion joints should be avoided wherever pos- 
sible, as there is danger of their being misused in several 
ways. They may be packed with something that sticks 

61 



A Big Piping Job. 

them; the gland may be screwed up sideways with the 
same effect; they may not be set up in line with proper 
guides, and they may not be properly anchored. 

An expansion joint has the pressure on the area of 
the pipe in which it is placed as well as the thrust on 
the pipe from the steam turning the corner. 

There can be no shaking of pipes with expansion 
joints, as, from necessity, the pipes must be anchored 
soHd. 

The ideal way to take care of expansion is to have 
the branch pipes long enough to have sufficient spring and 
put in long curves. 

A job of piping was put up to carry i6o pounds of 
steam. The main pipe was i6 inches internal diameter, 
and to supply steam to the engines there were two 12- 
inch pipes taken off at right angles to the 16-inch pipe, 
in which was an expansion joint. 

Before the pipe was put up the engineer designing 
the work was replaced by others who simply bent a piece 
of flat iron at right angles, put a strut across and bolted 
it to a rough stone wall with %-inch bolts to take the 
thrust of the end of the pipe. 

One thing was inevitable ; the pipe let go. 

Then came along a pipe man who suggested putting 
in the thread twisting scheme shown in the cut of the 
expansion piece. Fig. 23a, page 66. 

His idea was that the pipe would twist on the threads 
at each of the joints. From sheer good luck the pipe did 
not twist on the threads and set them to leaking, but 
twisted on the flanges. 

Of course, a thing like this cannot be anchored until 
you get to the point A, and the shaking of the pipe togeth- 
er with the expansion soon had the packing worn out in 

62 



Don't Use Copper Ells. 

the joint that worked the easiest. There was a big leak 
requiring a shutdown to put in a new gasket. 

In a short time a flange on this joint cracked and 
had to be bound. This joint was finally made sufficiently 
tight so that the movement was transferred to another 
one, which was soon in the same condition. 

This arrangement was leaking so often and caused 
so many shutdowns that it was finally taken out, the 
expansion joint put back in the main pipe, and the end 
of the pipe securely anchored. 

It will be noticed that among the fittings in this hitch 
up there are nine companion flanges. 

It was in use about a year and a half and when 
taken down there were five of these nine companion 
flanges broken. 

Copper ells for expansion have a way of bursting, 
and copper is not a safe metal to use for this purpose. 

As globe valves were formerly made, it was a nice 
job to regrind them when leaks occurred. 

After a time very ingenious machines were made 
that would do accurate work. Attempts were made to 
get valve disks that had a medium soft composition, from 
a species of hard rubber to babbit metal. These are 
liable to give out under high pressure. Valves are now 
made with brass seats and disks, and both removable, so 
that repairs can be quickly made. These should not be put 
in with white lead. Some makers put their seats and bon- 
nets together with white lead. The engineer that takes 
these apart will find a nice job as it will be necessary to 
get a torch and heat the outside before they can be taken 
apart. He will then be glad to put them together with 
black lead. 

63 



Valve Openings. 

Globe valves should always be used where it is neces- 
sary to open and close quickly, or where it is necessary to 
regulate nicely, like throttle valves, injection valves to 
condensers, feed valves to boilers, etc. There is not so 
much loss in pressure through a globe valve as is gener- 
ally claimed, especially when used for steam. 

The difference in an indicator diagram between a 
globe valve opened one turn and full open is hardly 
appreciable. 

A globe value should be put in so that the pressure 
should come on bottom for two reasons : First, if the 
pressure were on top the current of steam through or 
past the valve will keep it vibrating and soon pull it off 
the stem. Second, the valve disk when pressure is on 
top will be held on its seat until all lost motion is taken 
up, which will require about a turn of the wheel before 
the valve moves, thus rendering it useless for close regu- 
lation, and it will be no better in this respect than a gate 
valve. 

The throttle valves on straight-line engmes are made 
with one-half of the valve a solid disk and the other half, 
or moving part, swings around on to it when the valve 
is open, so that one-half of the diameter is always closed. 
With this valve there is no wire drawing across the seat. 

Professor Sweet told the writer a story of an engi- 
neer who wrote him that he had found the trouble with 
his engine ; the valve was never half open, and he had 
taken it off and put on a valve that could be opened full. 
Professor Sweet wrote him that if he would take a dia- 
gram from his engine with the new valve, then replace 
the valve he had taken off and take another diagram, 
should there be any appreciable difference between the 
two, he (Professor Sweet) would pay for the new valve. 

64 



Draining of Pipes. 



The engineer admitted there was no difference. 

For exhaust and water, gate valves should be used, 
except as noted above, as these are not as lively as high- 
pressure steam. 

The first gate valves that came out had disks made 
in two parts with a wedge in between. These wedges 
have a way of wearing in such a manner that they stick 
in closing. When this occurs with boiler blow-off valves 
it causes cold chills. 

The introduction of the solid disk saved all concern 
about the valve closing easily and these have had the 
largest sale. With the low pressure carried at the time 
of their introduction it was customary to put in rings of 
babbitt but it was soon evident that this metal was not 
durable under heat due to lOO pounds of steam. Babbitt 
seats have disappeared above a pressure of 70 pounds. 

When high pressures of 150 pounds and superheat 
began to be used it was learned that even brass seats and 
disks would not stand the temperature and the valves with 
seats and disks are all made of iron. 

The old line of check valves with spindle or wings 
for guide and vertical lift that, when they had become 
somewhat worn would stick and require several hard 
blows with a club before they would seat, have largely 
gone out of use and been replaced with the swinging 
check. 

Sometimes a man, when connecting a steam pipe to 
an engine, will incline the pipe towards the boilers as it 
seems that the proper place for the water is in the boil- 
ers and the drain from the pipe should go there. He will 
learn that the drain will not flow back against a current 
of steartL^JJe wjll also learn that when the load is light 
and the_ current of steam slow and apparently largely 

65 





I 



EXPANSION 
PIECE 



dKZP 



12 



Fig. 23a. 





Fig, 24. Action in Pipes of Syphon 
Condenser. 




( I 



MTl-JlV 



ABOUT 25 



DC 



r... ' 1 



66 



Water in Steam Pipes. 

along the top of the pipe, the water will loaf along 
the pipe, fill up all pockets, etc., and when a heavy pull 
comes on the engine it w^ill all come over in body and that 
it is better to slope towards the engine so as to drain all 
the time and avoid any accumulation. 

There was an excellent opportunity to observe the 
action of water in pipes by the use of a syphon con- 
denser set up as shown in Fig. 24._^ The engine had a 
28x6o-inch cylinder and the exhaust was 8 iixhes. The 
engine was doing rolling-mill work and at times was 
only carrying friction load. When the load was first 
thrown off the vacuum would go from 23 to 26 or 27 
inches. The vacuum would gradually drop back during 
the light load to 22 inches, when, if there was no increase 
in the load, there could be heard a rush of water in the 
pipe and the vacuum would go up to 26 inches again. 

The case was diagnosed in this way : When the 
load was thrown ofif, the volume of steam in the exhaust 
was small and the water condensed in the heater, etc., 
having such a long distance to travel would collect along 
the bottom of the pipe. As it collected, it would lessen 
the area of the pipe, thus partially choking the steam pas- 
sage, causing a drop in the vacuum. The vacuum in the 
condenser would remain-4he -same, and when the differ- 
ence in pressure in the condenser and that on top of the 
water became great enough, or the pipe became choked 
sufficiently so as to start a wave motion, the water would 
be forced out of the horizontal pipe, up the vertical and 
through the condenser without trouble. During a case 
of high water this pipe and a portion of the heater were 
under water and ran without trouble. 

This condenser would at times get too full and would 
run water over into the exhaust pipe, but if it was only a 

(>1 



A Better Plan. 



small amount and the pump was stopped, the 
water would go out all right. Twice during its 
use the pipe was flooded when no one was near 
the pump, water hammer was set up and the 
horizontal pipe burst, but in no case did any 
water get back through the vertical part of the 
heater. After this had been used for a short 
time, there was so much trouble with it that 
it seemed the better plan to change to the one 
shown in Fig. 25. The exhaust here entered 
at the top of the heater and passed out at the 
bottom before it entered the vertical pipe. The 
passage out of this heater to vertical pipe was 
so short that there was no chance for an ac- 
cumulation of water and there was never any 
trouble of loss of vacuum from this cause. One 
day, when the engine was stop2ed and drip 
open, the engineer noticed a stream of water 
running from the drip, and investigation 
showed that a hole had become worn in the 
coil and water was going from heater coil into 
the exhaust. The coil was taken out and a 
double coil put in, consisting of a 2-inch and 




Fig. 25. A Better Plan. 




n 



68 



Heaters and Condensing Engines. 

I ^ -inch pipe. These pipes were screwed into headers 
and one day both pipes pulled out. Feeding these pipes 
was a pump with a lO-inch water cylinder controlled by a 
pressure regulator that would keep the pressure up to lOO 
pounds. This forced water enough into the exhaust to 
condense all the steam so that there was no pressure to 
carry it away, and some got into the steam cylinder, 
though not enough to break anything. Since that time 




Fig. 26. Pratt and Cady Receiver. 



this engineer has never put a heater in the exhaust pipe of 
a condensing engine. The difference in temperature be- 
tween the hot well and the vacuum, or the temperature in 
the exhaust, will not amount to a saving of 2 per cent., 
which, in many cases, would not pay for the investment, 
and when the risk is taken into account, he has thought 
best not to assume it. 

When draining, it is necessary in many cases to have 

69 



Heating Liquids. 

a place that will collect the water in such a manner that 
steam cannot get by without forcing the water ahead of 
it. The principle on which this is accomplished is shown 
in a Pratt & Cady receiver for their old style return 
traps, something like Fig. 26. Into this receiver the water 
comes through the various drain pipes. On these pipes 
should be check valves to prevent any interference one 
with another. 

From this receiver the water passes out through the 
central pipe. This pipe extends nearly to the bottom of 
the receiver, and it is evident that no steam can get out 
until the water has been forced out below the end of this 
pipe. With such a system, the drip can be forced as high 
as the pressure will raise water. 

When heating liquids in vessels where steam cannot 
come in contact with the contents, coils are used. If at 
the end of the coil an ell looking up is used, it will not 
be possible to get the condensed water out of the pipes 
and have them do their full work, without forcing a suffi- 
cient current through to drive all the water in the pipes 
ahead of it. This means big coal bills. Immersed coils 
can be successfully drained by putting a tee at the end 
of the coil, as shown in Fig. 27, with a very short nipple 
and cap on one end, a bushing and smaller sized pipe with 
long thread at the other end. The small pipe reaching 
into the tee should go below the bottom of the pipe, com- 
ing into the side of the tee so as to drain the coil clear 
to the bottom. The coil should be put in the vessel so 
that there is a continual incline toward this tee. It will 
drain thoroughly and a trap can be used. 

Another form made with ells is shown in Fig. 28. 
These pockets, to be effectual, must be short. 

70 



Main Steam Pipes. 

One method of putting up a main steam pipe is shown 
in Figs. 29 and 30. This is a good system where there 
are a number of smaU engines, and for such a purpose 
it really requires no separator, for it is itself one form of 
separator. 

Where a main pipe is put up like Fig. 31, the drain 
from the main pipe can be taken direct into the boiler by 
the I ^ -inch pipe, as shown. In this pipe there should 
be a stop and swinging check valve and the pipe should 



•s 



a 




Fig. 27 and 28. Methods of Piping. 

enter the boiler below the water line. The pipe from the 
boiler to the main pipe should never enter the main at 
the bottom, as when the stop valve is closed it makes a 
pocket for water. In some cases an extra stop valve is 
put next to the boiler as an extra precaution. When this 
is done there should be a ^-inch drip valve just above 
this valve to drain any water that may collect from leak- 
age through the top valve, and the bottom valve should 
be opened first. The stop valve at main pipe should never 



71 



Main Steam Pipes. 



r\ 



mlT/ 



Fig. 29-30. Main Steam Piping. 




[Jdrip T' 



be omitted. Another method is to put the main pipe at 
the proper level so that the connecting pipe from the 
boiler may lie level. This has to be done where there is 
not sufficient height for the other plan. Fig. 32 is a top 
view. This is equally as good a plan, but the main pipe 
may not be high enough to drain back into the boiler. 
It is claimed that 7 feet elevation above the water is neces- 
sary for this, although good work has been done with an 
elevation of 4 feet. 

In large electric stations it is good practice to put in 





J 



CHECK 



Fig. 31. Another Way. 




M 



a. 



Fig. 32. Top View. 



72 



Main Steam Pipes. 



two steam pipes and two water pipes. Where this is 
done and there are two lines of boilers it is usual to run 
the main lines through the center of the boiler-room. 
This necessitates the crossing of one of the main lines 
with a pipe from each boiler. These cross-over pipes 
should not go under the main pipes, as this forms a 
pocket on top of the stop valve when closed. The cross- 
over pipe should go over the main pipe, as shown in 
Fig. 33- 




Fig. 33. Plan for Crossing Pipes. 

Where the pipes are not too long, the expansion can 
be taken care of with generous curves in the pipe. Pipes 
300 feet long or more require very circuitous routes. 
When curves like Fig. 34 are put in, they should be laid 
horizontally to prevent the trapping of water. Curves 
of this kind should never be put in with fittings or 
flanges, as they would be leaking in a short time. 

n 



Curved Pipes and Slip Joints. 




Fig. 34. Curve that might Trap Water. 
I 



Wrought iron expands 



of an inch for each 



150,000 
degree change in temperature. To determine the expan- 
degrees change X length in inches 

sion of a pipe : := 

150,000 
expansion. A pipe 300 feet long or 3,600 inches under a 
steam pressure of 150 pounds becomes, if we take 70 
degrees as the temperature of the pipe before steam is 

3,600 X 293 
admitted, = 7 inches expansion. 



150,000 






[X ^ 



I 



BRASS SLEEVE 




Fig. 35. A Slip Joint. 
74 



Water Hammer. 

Slip joints are made like Fig. 35. They should be 
accurately guided, as the sleeve should work as true as a 
piston rod, and unless guided properly the gland can 
clamp the sleeve sufficiently tight to prevent it sliding. 

The pipe should be rigidly secured at each end, in 
the first place, to hold the pipe from pulling apart from 
pressure, and also to slide the joint in when the pipe 
expands, and, in the second place, to prevent vibration 
and to pull the joint out when contracting. 

Large pipes should never be anchored to buildings, 
as the vibrations will loosen the brickwork in time. The 
pressure against the end, or a turn in the pipe, is the area 
of the pipe multiplied by the pressure per unit of area, 
and in addition is the momentum of the moving body of 
steam. 

Water hammer in a pipe can occur only where there 
is a dead end or an abrupt change in direction. It is 
supposed to be caused by the water condensed in the cold 
pipe being driven ahead by the steam, then a vacuum 
being formed and the steam and water rushing together, 
only to have the water driven forward again. The veloc- 
ity of steam rushing into a vacuum and there meeting a 
body of water gives the water a heavy impetus, and should 
the water meet an obstruction, it receives a blow that will 
shatter anything of ordinary strength. 

Should water hammer occur when steam is turned 
into a cold pipe, and should there be a valve of ample size 
that can be opened instantly, the pipe can be saved ; if not, 
there can nothing be done if the steam has traveled any 
distance so that there is a large volume. Shutting off 
steam from its source still leaves steam in the pipe, and 
until the steam is all condensed, the hammer will be main- 
tained until something gives way. 

75 



About Traps. 

An important item about a piping plant is a trap. 
A trap is a trap, and it is unfortunate that it is impos- 
sible to get along without them. 

For large systems, and where live steam is used for 
heating, some of the return systems are on the side of 
economy. Where heating factories of more than one 
story and where the buildings are not too far apart, the 
engineer was successful in returning the water from the 
pipes directly by gravity without any trap. 

Where the work is not very important and the 
amount of condensation is not large, an expansion trap 
of good design will do the work all right. 

The important thing about traps for main steam pipes 
and separators in the same is that the trap shall be quick 
and sure to operate, not liable to derangement; that it 
shall have a large opening that can take care of a flood 
of water should a flood come, and that it shall not close 
until all the water is gotten rid of. 

A trap having a small opening is liable to become 
plugged. At one place one of these plugged-up with a 
small piece of packing, not much larger than the lead in 
a lead pencil, and a smash-up was the result. 

At one mill a bell and spigott suction pipe was put 
in, and the pipe being lo-inch diameter and 200 feet long. 
This pipe was laid by skilled men and extra precautions 
were taken in pouring and caulking the lead, and the 
gravel was thoroughly tamped under it. It leaked badly 
when the pumps were put to work. It takes but little 
expansion to draw a pipe with a lead joint sufficient to 
leak enough air to make trouble in a suction line or in 
gas mains. For water pipes under pressure, the small 
leaks are readily absorbed by the ground. Flange pipe 
with thin rubber gasket inside the bolts will give less 

7(^ 



Suction for Pumps. 

trouble and can be made absolutely tight with care. 

When connecting a number of pumps to one suction 
pipe, some pumps may have more ''pull" than others, and 
the latter may not be able to get any water. The safer 
plan is to put in check valves in all the branch pipes, as 
shown in Fig. 36. Should there be a small pump in con- 
nection with large ones, put the connection to this at the 
bottom of main pipe, or put the end of suction through 
the top and let it project into the main pipe nearly to the 
bottom. The large pumps can better take care of the 
small accumulation of air than the small one. 



TO PUMP 




Fig. 36. Check Valves in Branch Pipes. 



Drip Pipes for Cylinders. 



Drips were laid out for a tandem compound engine 
having piston valves. The directions were to lead the 
drips from the steam pipe and the drip from the receiver 
in separate pipes out of doors, the drip from the receiver 
to have a check valve and trap. The drips from each 
cylinder were to be connected with check valve in each 
end and carried separately to the condenser. The 
engineer did not see them put up, but after a short time 
he heard complaints about the large amount of water 
that came over in the steam pipe and that it took an hour 
to get the engine started, the trouble being with water 

77 



Cylinder Drip Pipes. 




Fig. 37. The Wrong Way to Pipe Cylinder Drips. 

in the low pressure cylinder. This seemed strange until 
an investigation showed the connections made (as in Fig. 
37) with all the drips connected together. 

The way they worked was this : The pressure in the 
receiver and from the steam pipe was greater than in the 
low pressure cylinder ; the low pressure cylinder having 
piston valves on the side, there was no chance of getting 
rid of the water except through the drips ; the pressure 
in the drip pipes from steam pipe and receiver being 
greater than the pressure in the cylinder, there was no 
possible chance for the water to escape. The drip from 




Fig. 38. Another poor way to do it. 



78 



,____-,_ Steam Heating. ~ -_-_--- 

cylinder and receiver were taken out of the other pipe 
and were carried away separately and there was an end 
to the trouble. 

Drips are often connected as in Fig. 38, the drip 
from steam pipe being connected to the cylinder drips, 
and when starting al-1 are wide open. -The result is that 
the pressure from the steam pipe prevents the water from 
escaping from the cylinder and the piston slaps in the 
water for some time. The drip from the steam pipe 
should never be connected with the cylinder drains, but 
when so connected the steam pipe drain should always 
be closed when starting the engine. In one case where 
the drip from steam led to a receiver on a compound 
engine, and this pipe had the compound gage connected 
to it, if was found that by giving the valve one-half turn 
the pressure on the gage would go up to 50 pounds and 
yet there would be no pressure on the receiver, the pres- 
sure being due to friction in the pipe. 

Piping for Steam Heat. 

When heating a building with exhaust steam the pipe 
should go to the top of the building first, and, leading 
downward, branch out to the radiators. Air is nearly 
double the weight of steam, and if steam is taken to the 
radiators on the rise, the air will flow into the radiators 
instead of ascending. When taken from a descending 
pipe, a large portion will flow right through to the bottom, 
and there will be much less trouble with air in the radia- 
tors. Fig. 39 is an elevation showing the arrangement of 
piping followed in a large hotel. The pressure is just 
below that of the atmosphere. The first radiators that 
were put in had i square foot of surface to 75 cubic feet of 
space. This was found to be not sufficient. There was 

79 



























C 


? V 


T 


-<_ 












(E 












Ul 












►- 






CO 


, 




< 






CE 






UJ 






O 






X 




1- 
< 

5 


o 






I 




K 


< 






o 




p 


o 






I 




1- 


t- 






1- 




0. 


0. 


, : 




1- 




IT 


o 






<0 

IT 




O 


o 








U. 
O 

z 










s 




o 

_l 


_ 




; 


























3 














03 














U. 














o 














Q. 














o 














H 














O 














K 














1- 














< 








iiiiiiiiiiiiiii 






X 












\ 




UJ 








/ 










lU 














a 














0. 














cc 












\. 


< 












I 


k 




- 








— / 






AIR PIPE 

r ■ " 










RETURNS 




L^— ===^ 


7 






CU-- 


H r 








=:i 










FIRST HEATER 
WATER FOR 


vfcc 






^U 


SECOND HEATER 




VACUUM PUMP 


BATH ROOMS, 






TRAP 


FOR BOILERS 


C 


j-a 


KITCHEN, ETC. 

































f^'g' 39- P^^n for Piping a Hotel. 
8o 



Piping a Receiver. 



then put in i to 50, except at the northwest corners of 
the building, where it was made i to 35. This was found 
more than actually necessary, but was a better fault than 
to have the heating surface small. Steam can be turned 
on to the radiators at any time, and there is no cracking 
in the pipes. 

When piping up the receiver for a compound engine 
it is customary to do it something on the plan of Fig. 40. 
In work of this kind there should be a check between the 
receiver and the trap to prevent air drawing back, should 
the pressure in the receiver go below that of the atmos- 
phere. Should this occur and there be water present, it 
would surely get into the low-pressure cylinder. 

Should the trap not open properly the receiver will 




Fig. 40. 

Piping up Receiver of 

Compound. 

fill with water and a large body of water go over into the 
engine. For this reason some engineers have advocated 
the taking of steam to low-pressure cylinder directly under 
the receiver. This method would not furnish so dry 
steam, but the moisture would be uniform, and not in a 
body should the trap fail to work. 

The better plan is to leave .out the receiver. One 
builder has tried both ways and can find no difference in 
economy and has given up the receiver. 

81 



Mason Work. 

▼ T T 

The best way to learn how to do mason work is to 
observe that which is being demoHshed. 

A man was employed in a growing establishment 
that removed a great many buildings, foundations, etc., 
and had the opportunity to study the result of different 
methods. He has seen brick walls pushed over. In 
some, the bricks have been broken and when these were 
cleaned it required a large amount of labor. In others, 
when the wall fell the bricks all separate readily and 
were cleaned with" little trouble. 

When the first were laid the bricks were wet, or 
there was cement in the mortar. In the latter case the 
bricks were laid dry with lime mortar. In some cases the 
voids between the bricks were only partially filled and 
the wall came to pieces easily although the mortar ad- 
hered to the bricks. Observing the above, engineers have 
called for bricks to be wet except during freezing weather, 
and also are careful that plenty of mortar shall be used 
and that cement shall be added. 

Masons generally, if left to themselves, will sling a 
little mortar on to the place where the bricks are to be 
laid, especially in the inside courses, lay in the brick, 
spread the mortar over the top and smooth off with a 

82 



Laying Bricks^ 

trowel. The brick are held by the small amount of mor- 
tar top and bottom, and there will be very little at the 
sides and ends. When mortar is simply slung over the 
top, or "slushed," as masons call it, the mortar does not 
penetrate between the brick more than from 1-16 to 1-4 
of an inch. 

When laying the inside courses there should be suffi- 
cient mortar put in, so that when the brick is pushed into 
it, it will come up on all sides clear to the top of the brick. 
It should not be smoothed off even when the inside course 
is even with the outside except on the last level at night; 
A wall laid in this manner will be strong and more nearly 
air tight. 

Lime mortar should be made by slacking lime en- 
tirely covered with water to prevent burning. It should 
be mixed some days before using and should consist of 
about one part lime to five parts sand. When cement is 
to be used with it, the cement should be mixed thoroughly 
with water and added to the mortar just before it is used. 

Pure lime will not "set." It is only when mixed 
with impurities that it has "setting" qualities. Should 
clay be burned with it, it becomes cement, and the more 
of these impurities the slower it will slacken and the less 
heat will be given off during the slacking process. Cer- 
tain clays are made up of silica, alumina and iron oxides. 
Some lime rocks contain these impurities and are val- 
uable for making cement. 

Lime mortar hardens when exposed to the air and 
will harden in a wall only as fast as the air enters and 
comes in contact with it. No matter how old lime mortar 
is, if taken out of a wall and immersed in water, the lime 
will dissolve and leave the sand free. Quicklime is simply 
limestone heated or burned in a furnace. 

83 



Cements. 

Rosendale cement is made from a limestone rock 
containing, or having added to it in form of clay, about 
30 per cent, of silica, 8 per cent, of alumina, 3 per cent, 
of iron oxide, 33 to 35 per cent, of lime, and the balance 
made up of magnesia. It is burned in a furnace of brick 
construction, large at the bottom and ending at the top 
in a small chimney. A layer of fuel is put on the bottom, 
then a layer of the stone and clay, then a thin layer of 
buckwheat coal, and the furnace is filled up in this man- 
ner with stone and coal. Some kilns are made to dump 
the whole amount in the kiln every night, while others 
are arranged to run continuously, and the stone is taken 
out as burned. All stone, properly burned, are then 
ground and the Rosendale cement is ready for the pack- 
ers. It sets slowly, but will continue to grow hard for 
years. It is not suitable for work that needs to be used 
at once, but makes good construction where there is two 
to four months' time for it to harden. It will not stand 
frost for a few days after it is laid. It is claimed by some 
of its advocates that at fifty to one hundred years it will 
be stronger than the quicker setting Portlands. It is a 
long time to wait. It has the merit of being cheap. 

The manufacture of Portland is a much slower and 
more expensive process, and requires several times the 
outlay for buildings and machinery. 

The stone is first quarried and run through a crusher 
and then to a dryer, where it is thoroughly dried. From 
there it goes to the ball mill, which is a cylinder about 
4 feet in diameter and 5 to 6 feet long. These mills 
are lined with armor plate and partially filled with steel 
balls, weighing 20 pounds each. Outside of the lining 
are screens, so arranged that the stone that does not pass 
the screens is thrown back into the mill. The stone first 

84 



Making Cements. 

goes through these ball mills and is partially ground while 
the mills revolve. From the ball mills it goes to the peb- 
ble mills, which usually are 5 feet in diameter by 20 feet 
long, laid horizontally and revolving on trunnions. 

These mills are filled half full of imported pebbles, 
from i>^ to 2>4 inches in diameter. These pebbles are 
very hard and their work severe. When the stone leaves 
the pebble mill it is so fine that 95 per cent, of it will pass 
through a sieve having 10,000 meshes per square inch.- 

From the pebble mill it goes to the kilns. The kilns 
are jYi feet in diameter and 60 feet long, placed on an 
incline, and revolve from one to three revolutions per 
minute. The fire is at the lower end, and is coal, pow- 
dered as finely as the stone and blown in with air. The 
stone enters at the upper end, and finally is subjected to 
a temperature of 3,200 degrees. It is all melted, and 
emerges from the kiln in the form of clinker, very hard 
and very heavy. In some mills it is cooled and taken 
direct to the grinding machinery ; in others it is placed 
in storage, where from a day's to a week's supply is kept. 
The grinding of the clinker is the same process as the 
grinding of the stone. After the grinding it is taken 
to the stock house. 

Its chemical composition is about 63 per cent, lime, 
20 per cent, silica and the balance alumina and iron. 
There should not be to exceed 2 per cent, of magnesia. 
The rock is usually carbonate of lime, but during its 
passage through the kiln the carbonic acid is driven off. 

The utmost care must be exercised all the way 
through. The chemist must examine the rock before it 
goes to the crushers and see that the right proportions 
are started, and must follow it all through the various 

85 



Properties of Cement. 

processes, so that it shall be correct when it finally reaches 
the storehouse. 

After the cement reaches the storehouse its physical 
properties must be tested. In the laboratory the cement 
is kept at a uniform temperature, so that all comparisons 
shall be accurate. 

Briquets are made having a cross-section of i square 
inch in area. The amount of water and cement are both 
weighed and thoroughly mixed with a trowel. This mix- 
ing is not simply turning it over, but all the pressure pos- 
sible is put on to the trowel to make as compact a mass 
as possible. Some of these. briquets are allowed to set in 
air, and some in water. At one day, seven days and 
twenty-eight days they are tested by being pulled apart 
in a testing machine, and a record kept. One set is kept 
in boiling water twenty-four hours, and must not crack 
nor disintegrate, and must also undergo the tensile test. 

A cement manufacturer keeps a record of the physi- 
cal and chemical properties of all of the product he sells, 
and if it is condemned, he can guess pretty nearly the 
reason. 

It is important that a cement should not set too 
quickly, as it could not be handled fast enough to get it 
into its place. 

To determine the setting, a *'pat" is made, this pat 
being about 2 inches square and ^ inch thick, with thin 
edges, by thoroughly mixing and strong compression 
with a trowel. Note the time when the pat becomes hard 
enough to sustain a wire 1-12 inch in diameter, loaded 
with ^ pound. When the wire is sustained, the initial 
set has commenced. It should not be less than 45 minutes. 

When it will sustain a wire 1-24 inch in diameter 
loaded with i pound, the set is complete. 

86 



Testing Samples. 

It should not be less than two hours, nor more than 
six hours. The water, cement and room should be about 
70 degrees Fahr. Much warmer than this the set will 
be quicker, and colder the set will be slower. The weight 
of water should be about 20 per cent, of the weight of the 
cement. 

Specifications for cement in many instances are 
peculiar. Some engineers specify that the cement shall 
be fresh ground, and then follow that up with the re- 
quirement that the initial set shall not be less than 45 
minutes. Fresh ground cement will hardly stand this 
.latter test. Cement is improved by having some age, and 
should stay in the storehouse for at least one month. 

A United States engineer advertised for cement and 
one of the clauses was : "After being mixed neat and 
filled into a glass bottle, or similar vessel, and struck 
level at the top, it must not crack the vessel in setting, 
nor rise out of it, nor become loose in it by shrinking." 
He got one bid. Cement should expand about one-thou- 
sandth of its volume in setting. 

It is surprising what different results will be obtained 
by different men who are skilled in testing. 

A sample of cement was taken to a college labora- 
tory, where it failed to fulfill the requirements. The 
manufacturers sent their representatives and he showed 
15 per cent, less than the lesult of the first test. A rep- 
resentative from a certain testing laboratory made a test, 
with the result that he showed 50 per cent, better than the 
first test, and brought the cement beyond the requirements 
of the specification. All these tests were from the same 
sample of cement, using the same sand, mixed and molded 
in the same laboratory and broken by the same machine. 

Cement, when set, should be uniform in color and 

87 



Mixing with Sand. 

free from all blotches or spots. Unless colored, it is usu- 
ally light in color when hard. 

These three substances — lime, Rosendale and Port- 
land cements — are what the engineer must rely upon 
for holding his masonry structure together. 

The next important thing is sand. This should be 
clean and sharp and free from soil or dirt of any kind. 
Any loam with it will retard its setting and the com- 
pleted work will be inferior. When sand is fairly dry, 
by squeezing a handful of it, it should leave the hand 
clean. Putting it into a glass of water the water would 
remain clear. 

It is calculated that sand has voids amounting to one- 
third of its bulk, so that if one part of cement be mixed 
with three parts of sand the voids will be filled and there 
will be no increase of volume in the sand, and that to use 
less cement than the above will leave voids in the sand, 
depending on the less amount used. This must depend 
somewhat on the size of sand used. In an engineer's 
experience he found that one part sand and one part 
cement made a quicker setting and a stronger mixture 
than one to three. He also learned that there was a vast 
difference in the different brands of cement. A specially 
good brand of cement will carry four parts of sand and 
make as strong concrete as another brand will when 
carrying three parts. 

When using Rosendale cement, it would be well not 
to use over two, or at most two and a half, parts of sand. 
From the above it will be seen that the lower priced ce- 
ment is not always the cheapest. 

Lime, and Rosendale cement will not stand frost. 
Portland cement of good quality that will stand the boil- 



Winter Masonry. 

ing test will withstand frost where it does not become 
frozen before the final set. 

Some foundations were put in an open field where 
the temperature remained from lo to i8 degrees below 
zero for a number of days, and the concrete was first class. 
This concrete was protected only by the forms. In this 
case boiling water was used on the sand and stone so as to 
get as much of the frost as possible out of them. 

Brick walls have been laid with lime mortar very 
successfully in winter by the use of hot water in temper- 
ing the mortar, and protecting the walls at night. 

When mixing concrete in the proportions of one of 
cement, three of sand, and six of broken stone, it will 
require i^ barrels of cement and Yz yard of sand for 
each yard of concrete. The stone should be broken to 
pass through a 2-inch ring. 

Cement is improved by working and driving down 
solid, and for this reason the usual manner of writing 
down specifications is that "only sufficient water shall 
be used so that when the concrete is well rammed the 
water will just show on the surface." To do this and make 
a water-tight iob and leave a smooth outside surface, 
needs extra care in mixing. 

As mixed in orobably 75 per cent, of cases with the 
above amount of water, there will be considerable stone 
in places with very little of the paste between them, and 
in other places it will be all paste and but little stone. 

Because of this sham mixing, it is sometimes the 
practice to wet the mixture to such an extent that it will 
be "puddled," and the paste will mix with the stone suf- 
ficiently to make a smooth and water-tight job with but 
little effort. Such a mixture cannot be rammed, and only 
a thin tool is used to work it down well next the forms 

89 



Concrete Work. 

so as to make a smooth outside job; This is a favorite 
plan around a job that must hold water — as dams, head- 
gates and similar places. 

For jobs of any size a good concrete mixer should 
be used, and care should then be used that the mix is not 
allowed to heap up in a high pile and the stone allowed to 
separate, roll to the bottom and be put into the work 
separately. 

The stone used in concrete work should be crushed 
from a good quality of either granite, a strong limestone 
or trap rock. Stone of a slaty character of any kind, or 
limestones similar in form to slate rock, do not make a 
strong concrete. 

Rubble masonry is fast going out of date, but when 
laid with cement the work should be watched to be sure 
that the stones are bedded in cement, rather than have 
the stones laid and cement thrown over them, which is 
a favorite practice, with many masons. 

One way is to have rubble work "grouted." This 
consists in laying up the stone dry. The outside is then 
pointed up with Portland cement, which soon sets. 

A box is provided being 12 inches wide at the bot- 
tom, 30 inches wide at the top, and 5 to 6 feet long. In 
one end is a gate about 6 inches wide and 8 inches high 
to let out the mixture. This rests on top of the stone 
work. Should there be any leaks either in the pointing 
up or at the gate in the box, it can be stopped by forcing 
into them paper taken from the cement barrels. 

Rosendale cement is used for this work. Water is 
put in the tub or box and the cement mixed. Then the 
sand is put in, one of cement to two of sand. A man 
stands at either end of the box with a hoe and keeps hoe- 
ing up from the bottom so as to keep the sand and cement 

90 



Examining Masonry. 

from settling and to mix it thoroughly. Sufficient water 
should be used so that the whole will run freely. 

When mixed, the gate is slowly raised and the mix- 
ture runs into the stone work, and if properly mixed it 
will fill everything full, as it runs as freely as water, and 
will make a thoroughly water-tight job. Such a job, 
after it is a year or two old, will be a difficult matter to 
tear down, except by blasting. 

An engineer had seen so much of this work done and 
the work was so solid that he attempted to use it in his 
practice at different places, but found it exceedingly dif- 
ficult to teach men to do this very simple mixing. They 
could not learn to keep the sand in suspension and the 
sand would run over the top of the work and stop it up. 
There would be some cement at the bottom of the founda- 
tion, a lot of sand on top, and the center empty, so he 
had to give it up and use concrete. 

He found a knife and a two-foot rule handy tools to 
examine masonry. When brick are laid close, a knife 
will determine whether there is any mortar between them. 
Where they are a little wider apart, the end of a rule will 
soon determine whether the joint is full or whether a 
little mortar has been thrown over the top. He has found 
many masonry walls of rubble laid in cement that he 
could push a two-foot rule through in places after the 
cement was set. 

When commencing a foundation, the first important 
thing is the nature of the ground. If the foundation is 
to rest on stone, the surface which is to receive the 
foundation should be flat, or, if the stone is sloping, it 
should be cut into steps, otherwise the foundation may 
slide. 

A stone base will transmit vibrations, and sometimes 

91 



Foundations. 

sound, so that is not desirable for the base of founda- 
tions for high-speed machinery where vibrations and 
noise would be objectionable, as in an office building. 

Damp clay is slippery, and will press in all directions, 
going down at the bottom, in at the sides and bulging up 
a short distance away. Dry clay has a tendency to draw 
moisture from the air, and near the surface will expand 
and contract, depending on the weather. 

In many sections it is treacherous. In some sections, 
where the land is well drained and the surface water runs 
away quickly, it makes a good base for a foundation when 
the foundation goes 4 to 5 feet in depth. It will trans- 
mit vibrations. 

The ideal base is hard pan. This, next to stone, is 
the nearest to being non-compressible. Next to hard pan 
is gravel or sand. 

If possible, this should be compacted with large 
quantities of water. Either of these will compress some. 
The thing to provide for is that the foundation shall be 
put down in such a manner that the settlement shall be 
equal in all directions. 

The bottom of foundations should be below frost, 
otherwise the frost may distort them. 

Good, compact sand or gravel will sustain 3 tons per 
square foot. It will sustain 6 tons if a few inches of set- 
tlement in a few years are not objectionable. 

Clay, when not subject to frequent soakings, may be 
trusted with from i to 2 tons per square loot. 

Quicksand, if it is held on all sides so that it will not 
be forced out and can be kept dry, makes a good base. 
Should water get in it, however, it will take but a 
small hole to let it out, provided it has a place to flow. 

Where soils are uneven and treacherous and can be 

92 



Pile Driving. 

kept wet, piles should be resorted to. City laws allow 
from 25 to 30 tons on a pile. The usual specification calls 
for a hammer of a pile driver to weigh 2,000 pounds, drop 
12 feet, and the last blow to be resisted by a pile sinking 
only y^. inch. The question has been asked, "What is the 
weight or force of such a blow?" 

A man, having a large number of piles to drive, fell 
to working on this problem, and found ignorance on all 
sides. He took it to a young man who analyzed it as 
follows : 

2,000 pounds weight falling 12 feet = 12,000 foot- 
pounds energy. The pile sinking i inch =1-12 foot of 

space. 

Energy = force X space, 
energy 

Force = 

space 

Energy 24.000 24,000 X 12 

= = = 288,000 lbs. 

space I- 1 2 I 

as the force of the blow, or the resistance of the pile, the 
pile sinking I inch from the blow. If the pile sinks only 
%. inch, there is no doubt about its being able to sustain 
the 25-ton load imposed upon it. 

The piles should be sawed off not higher than the 
line of permanent moisture and a concrete base built 
over them. They are driven 2^ feet center to center, 
and the concrete commences 6 inches below the top of 
them, and should be 2 feet thick. This holds the top of 
them so they cannot spread 

Where piles have to go too deep, if there is sufficient 
room, a base of concrete can be made broad enough so 
that the weight will not be more than i ton or ^ ton 

93 



More about Foundations. 

per square fool, remembering always that the base should 
be built so that if there is settling it should settle equally 
all over. To accomplish this, a sub-foundation or base 
should be put in, covering the entire ground, and made 

2 to 5 feet thick, depending upon the weights that are 
to be put upon it, and set some distance apart. 

When building- foundations for machinery, there 
should be pockets left at the bottom, or a short distance 
from the bottom, so that the bottom of foundation bolts 
can be reached at any time. It is rare that foundation 
bolts break, but when they do, to have a chance to get 
at the bottom nut is worth a great deal. It is also handy 
to be able to let a bolt down out of the way during the 
erection or- subsequent handling of the engine. The 
pockets should be at least i8 inches square. The holes 
through the foundation for bolts should be larger than 
the bolt, so that the bolt can be swung around in the hole 
if necessary. 

The anchor bolts should not be grouted in, as there 
may come a time when it may be necessary to get them 
out. 

Should it be necessary to put new bolts into an old 
foundation, a hole can be drilled somewhat larger than 
the bolt, a split with wedge put in the bottom and clean 
Portland cement, without sand, Dut in the hole until it is 
half full. There need be no fear of pulling the bolt out. 

The general practice is to build foundations for ma- 
chinery to within half an inch of the level of the base of 
the machinery and fill this space with grout. This may 
fill the space, no one knows. Air pockets may get in and 
keep out the grout at the most important point. 

A good practice is to leave the top of foundation 2 to 

3 inches below the machinery and support the latter 

94 



Fig. 41 Foundation for Cross-Compound Engine. 



SIDE VIEW 



PLAN 



95 



Foundation for Compound. 

on iron wedges. When the frame of the engine is leveled 
and put into line, make a concrete of i part Portland, 2^2. 
parts sand and 5 of roofers' gravel or of small crushed 
stone of the same size. Put just sufficient water in it so 
that when it is squeezed in the hand it would retain its 
shape. This is pushed under the machinery with a stick 
and rammed solid with an iron rammer. If too much 
water is put in it will not stay in place, but will fall away, 
so that care should be exercised that it is not too wet. 
This method takes longer than grouting and is harder 
work, but there is no doubt that it fits every place, that it 
is in solid, and makes a filling that is much harder and 
fits better than grout. 

To prevent filling the holes around foundation bolts, 
fill the top of these holes with waste, excelsior or some- 
thing similar. 

The cut shows a foundation with base covering the 
entire ground under both foundations for a cross-com- 
pound engine. This is a good idea in any case, and es- 
pecially so if the ground is not of good gravel. This 
plan shows pockets for getting at the bottom of the foun- 
dation bolts so arranged that access can be had from the 
wheel-pit side, allowing all around the outside to be filled 
if desirable and a cellar not wanted. The holes for bolts 
can be made by building in gas-pipe or boiler tubing or 
square boxes of wood. 

Stakes have been used a great deal. They should be 
tapered, say from 4 inches at top to 2 inches at the bot- 
tom, and made smooth. They should be soaked in water 
for a week before using, so that they will not swell in the 
masonry. They should be pulled out as soon as possible 
after the foundation is finished. For this purpose, they 
should be sufficiently long to project 6 inches above the 

96 



Stone and Brick. 

top of the foundation. A light chain should be put 
around the top and a lever of 4x4 timber, 12 feet long, 
with a good fulcrum, will usually start them. If not, 
have two or three men put a strain on the lever and hit 
the stake a good, square blow directly on top with a 
sledge and it will pop right out. 

Foundations are built of brick, stone and concrete. 
An engineer was building some foundations, for an elec- 
tric station, of stone according to the terms of the con- 
tract, when the civil engineer employed by the owners 
objected and wanted them built of brick. The M. E. 
asked for his reasons, and he stated that brick made a 
better foundation and that all foundations of that char- 
acter in that vicinity were built of brick. The M. E. 
asked him what an engine foundation was for, and he 
replied that it was to hold an engine up. "No," said the 
M. E , "it's to hold an engine down and have it stay quiet, 
and to do this requires weight and stability, and stone fills 
the requirements better than brick, as it is heavier and 
stififer." 

To this the C. E. took exceptions, but after consult- 
ing his books admitted that stone had more weight, but 
would not agree with the M. E. that stone w^as stififer and 
that brickwork would spring. "Well," said the M. E., 
"you go to any of the places where they have large engines 
on brick piers, and if you can find a single one where 
the engine is well loaded that it does not spring, I will 
take out the stone foundations and put in brick." The 
M. E. heard no more about foundations. 

Good Portland concrete is getting to be universal 
for engine foundations, and is rapidly coming into use 
for making bridges, dams, and buildings. A concrete 
house costs about one-half as much as a brick one, and 

97 



W.I. RiDi? 



Fig. 42. Plan of Chimney. 




PLAN OF BASE. 




98 



Brick and Steel Chimneys. 

the same is true of mills. It can be molded in any form 
and can be made to represent any kind of cut stone de- 
sired at a minimum cost. 



Chimney. 

When it comes to deciding on draft, and first cost has 
to be kept down, a steel stack is usually decided upon. 

Carbonic acid and carbonic oxide gases are very de- 
structive to steel, and a steel stack corrodes very quickly 
on the inside. The heavy, self-supporting stack will take 
longer to rust out than the thin, guyed ones, but they, too, 
must give way. 

Fig. 42 is a brick chimney that costs no more than a 
self-supporting steel stack. It is very stiff and stands up 
against wind pressure in good shape. The inside shell 
is 12 inches thick at the bottom and 8 inches at the top. 
It does not reach quite through the top. The outside shell 
is 12 inches thick at the bottom and 8 inches during the 
latter part, except at the enlargement at the top. Com- 
mencing at the top, there are 18 inches for the bevel. 
This has a cast-iron cap with rabbeted joints, so that no 
water can get under the plate. Copper bolts, % inch diam- 
eter, are built into the chimney at the top, and when the 
cap is in place these are riveted. The cap reaches down 
4 inches inside of the chimney and 4 inches over the base 
of the bevel. The square part is 12 inches and the slope is 
9 feet. Below this, for 30 feet, the chimney is straight, 
and from that point to the bottom the batter is 2-10 of an 
inch per foot on each side. As shown on the plan at the 
base, buttresses are built into the outside shell and ex- 
tend as high as possible. Thev should not come within 3 

99 

LOFC. 



Reasons for Plain Designs. 

inches of the inner shell at any point. Above and below 
the opening for the flue and at the top of the chimney 
there is a 2^ x^ -inch iron band built in next to the outer 
course of brick, and every 10 feet there is a band, i^x^ 
inch, built in in the same way, so that the chimney is thor- 
oughly banded, and yet they do not show. 

The mortar should be made of one part lime to five 
parts clean, sharp sand, and when used one part Portland 
cement to one part lime should be added. When added 
the cement should be mixed with water before putting it 
into the mortar, otherwise the cement will be mixed in dry 
lumps. No more should be mixed than can be used with- 
in three hours of the mixing. 

The outer course should be laid in what is known as 
"push joints," viz., the mortar should be put on the laid 
brick sufficient to fill- the joint full, the brick laid in it and 
pushed to place. This fills the joint completely full. Ma- 
sons object to this because it makes a little thicker joint. 
They like to stick a little mortar on the inside corner of 
the brick and lay it down as in an ordinary straight wall. 
This makes a very thin joint at the outside, with often^no 
mortar for an inch or two, and a weak construction. All 
interstices should be well filled with mortar for strength 
and for tightness. 

It will be noticed there are no rings at the top for 
looks nor any projections. All projections catch snow, 
ice and rain, and as water is a universal solvent, where 
there are projections there will be disintegrations. 

There should be a ladder built on the outside of the 
chimney of J^-inch round iron, the steps being 14 inches 
apart, 14 inches wide and projecting 9 inches, so that a 
man can put his leg through to rest. A chimney built as 
above, 6 feet internal diameter and 125 feet high, cost 

100 



Size of Chimneys. 

above the foundation $1,850. One 8^ feet diameter and 
150 feet high cost $2,800, and one 13 feet internal diameter 
and 200 feet high cost $8,750. The latter had 16-inch 
walls for 70 feet. 

The formula for area of chimneys : 

120 X square feet of grate 

Area = ^ 

V height 

A table has been prepared by Mr. Wm. Kent and is 
published in most hand books. Mr. Kent based his table 
on the consumption of five pounds of coal per horse- 
power, so as to have it ample during bad weather. 

Mr. George H. Babcock's rule of thumb was : ''The 
area of chimney should be % the area of grate. It should 
never be less than i-io." 

In a high chimney, the velocity being greater, the 
area can be smaller than with a low chimney. There is 
an idea that the chimney should have an area equal to that 
of all the tubes. This would make the chimney too large. 
If w^e have a boiler with 70 tubes 4 inches in diameter we 
have an area of 500 square inches and a friction surface of 
375 inches. A stack 28 inches in diameter would carry 
that all right, and this would have a friction of only 90 
inches. Besides we have seen that a boiler flue is never 
full of gas at the full velocity of chimney. The flues 
between the boiler and the chimney should be slightly 
larger than the chimney, as, like the boiler flues, they are 
generally horizontal and have bends. 

Of late years many owners of steam plants have put 
in induced draft. 

One of the drawbacks to chimney draft is that, when 
strong, it draws air through all cracks and interstices, as 

lOI 



CO 

t— i 

O 

« 

O 

f^ 
o 

I— ( 
c^ 

Oh 
O 

P^ 

a. 
a, 

< 



m 
> 
W 
^ 



o 

o 

t— ( 
CO 



•S9qoui 

'B9J'B 9;BLU 

-Txojdd-B 
JO 9JBnbs 

JO 9PIS 


O O^ w -f- r-^ O c^ vnco coco -t O^ ^ O vo o O 
M M ci c^ <N cncoc'^cn'^^inioo r^r^ooco 


•^J 


gjBnbg 

•B9JV 


r^ M Ttoo M -t t^ O w x--" O ^O r-QO oo oo t^ 
r-> ^ M O^ O CT' O coo >D O^'-u r^ M M rt M N 

M N CO en '^ VT) r^co O N vn c> coco c<-)CO '^ O 

MMMNMCOCO'^in 


•;j 9JBnbs 

^9JY 
9Ai;D9Jja 


t^r->cococo r^r>.r^o '^mco cooo covO o^i-i 


O w a c^ CO '^ irjo t^ O mo O "^ O ■^ O O i 

iiMMMCJMrO'*^ 


Z 

K 
U 

o 

w 

O 
HI 


o 
o 


• • • M M o r^ CO r^ 

• • • CO 00 o CO oo 

• • O M rtO CO M 

M rH M P-H N 


4-> 




• • • 'st- M o w CO r^ M 

• • • r^ o — CO >D r^ o 

M M M M N 


O 








M M M M M 


-t-> 
N 

M 


O 
1 
tn 

O 

K 

<; 
u 

o 








M M M M 


o 

M 
M 


• • • 1- in M coco O CO Tj- loo 

r^or-^G^^^^^col-lMM 

N CO rf U-) t^co o <N ^o 

M M M M ; 


-4J 

M-l 

o 
o 

M 


W C^c» CO O^ir5'^u-)»oco^t^ 

CO M UOT^J-T^fo C>coOvO •<^co 

M C^ Cl CO '^ lOO CO O i-i CO »o 

l-l M M 


o 


! 

. . . .coH-icoQOir>or^C>coM • • • • 

. . . •M-^t^OrtC<^NCO»nO' • • • 

. . . . M M M CI M CO '^ lOO r^ . . . . 


o 

CO 


• • c< CO r^ CO coo l-l M CO u^ 

• O oo O coo C?N CO M o O • • • ' • 
MMMi-ioicocoir) • 


o 










o 


1 


Ncomr^OMT^... 




*-> 

M-l 

o 

ID 


com^in-f 

M CO rtO OO 




S9q3 


d 


CO M -^ r-. o coo o^Nco^ooe^cor^oo 
M c^ c>< M cocococo'*-'^ »nvo o r^ r^oo o^ O 

1 



102 



Induced and Forced Draft. 

well as through the brickwork itself, thus diluting the 
gases and cooling them. 

Induced draft has the same drawback. The induced- 
draft apparatus is made up of steel plates, which must be 
acted on the same as a steel stack. It is, or a portion of it 
at least, subject to repairs and breakdowns and a contin- 
uous expense for fuel. The products of combustion are 
discharged into the air that is breathed by the operatives 
and nearby residents. 

If high chimneys are not desired, would it not be 
better to build a chimney, say, lOO feet high, and put in 
the air by fan under the grate? It would not draw air 
through boiler setting to cool off the boiler, and the sur- 
rounding air would be purer. The apparatus would be 
more durable and could be smaller, as the volume of cold 
air is not so great as the hot air. 

Objections have been made to the steam jet for aiding 
or increasing combustion, on account of the large amount 
of steam used. 

One engineer tried to learn the amount of steam 
used with steam jets, and the result of his investigation 
was that the steam jet, as he used it, required 8 per cent, 
of the fuel burned to operate it. He then took the differ- 
ence between the amount of fuel used when running with 
natural draft and with the steam jet, and found the net 
result was that the jet took 2 per cent, more coal. 

Whatever system of draft is used there should be a 
draft regulator. There are damper regulators made now 
that are very powerful and will regulate the steam pres- 
sure within 2 pounds. 

For burning small anthracite and use a steam jet to 
help out. Put a valve in the steam pipe that leads to the 
jets and arrange the damper regulator so that when steam 

103 



Dampers. 

rises it will close this valve first and then the damper in 
the flue. Of course, when steam lowers, the damper 
opens first and then the jets. 



The Engine Room. 

T T T 

When James Watt took hold of the steam engine it 
consisted of a cyUnder m which steam was admitted un- 
der the piston and raised it to the top of the stroke when 
cold water was admitted and the vacuum, or rather, the 
pressure of air on top of the piston forced it down, thus 
doing mechanical work. 

Watt built a separate condenser and used steam on both 
sides of the piston. He also invented and used the indi- 
cator. His researches led him to foretell the advantage 
of using steam expansively and of compounding the 
same, but he did not live to see it carried out. 

Later mathematicians took hold of the matter, and, by 
figures, showed the saving by expanding steam. 

A professor in -Providence was looking over these 
figures, and, becoming interested, took them to a young 
man who had shown inventive ability while working at 
the harness maker's trade by mventing the sewing ma- 
chine for stitching leather. This young man was George 
H. Corliss. Elias Howe afterwards invented the placing 
of the eye at the point of the needle, thus making the 
sewing machine practical for all purposes. 

Young Corliss set about making an expansion engine, 

T05 



What Corliss Did. 

the point of cutting off to be determined by the action of 
the governor so that full holier pressure should be main- 
tained in the cylinder until expansion commenced. 

Expansion of steam had been tried with poppet valves 
and a fixed cut-off, but had not met with much success. 
The poppet valve did not appeal to Mr. Corliss, neither 
did the slide valve with its long ports and large clear- 
ance, so he set to work to make something entirely new. 
His success was so remarkable as to place him as the 
foremost engineer of his age, with the probability that 
centuries will go by before his name will be forgotten. 

He accomplished four things. He did away with 
crooked steam passages, placing a valve close to each end 
of the cylinder, with short, straight ports, thus reducing 
the clearance to a minimum. He made a valve that while 
light, was rigid and would keep its shape ; that was 
quickly and inexpensively made, requiring no scraping or 
grinding, and that would remain tight as long as the slide 
valve. By the use of the wrist-plate he quickened the 
motion of the valves at the right time, thus improving on 
the motion of the eccentric. By the use of his disengag- 
ing motion he brought expansion to perfection. 

He had the lot of most inventors, and was obliged to 
force his invention on an unwilling public. He had to 
take all the responsibility, and in many instances take 
his pay in what he could save in fuel. This in the end 
proved fortunate for him, as in most cases he received 
far in excess of the price he had put on the machine. 

At the time Mr. Corliss was selling his automatic cut- 
off engines for what he could save, the United States 
Government was spending money in experiments to show 
there was no economy in using steam expansively. 

With Mr. Corliss as draftsman, was a man by name of 

1 06 



Wright and Corliss. 

William Wright. Wright always claimed that he was the 
original designer of the Corliss valve. When a man cre- 
ates a great thing he is apt to imitate it later. Mr. Wright 
never afterwards built anything that remotely resembled 
the Corliss valve. He invented a cam motion — a cam 
moving around a central cam, its position being deter- 
mined by the governor. This cam operated poppet steam 
valves and made an automatic cut-off engine. The ex- 
haust was two slide valves, each valve being placed at 
the cylinder ends so as to reduce clearance, and as far as 
possible get the results obtained by Mr. Corliss. 

These engines were built for a number of years by 
Woodruff & Beach, at Hartford, Conn. Mr. Wright 
made a change in his cam and governor and went into 
business for himself. After a time he became convinced 
that the poppet was not a tight valve and built his 
engines with gridiron valves. 

When Mr. CorHss' patents expired, a great many 
builders started in to build ''improved" Corliss engines, 
and some of them have made rather sad work of it. 

In Mr. Corliss' day, piston and rotative speeds were 
slow, and he did not live to see the enormous amount of 
work that the steam engine was to do in the generation 
of electricity, calling for higher pressures, faster speed 
and large units. In all this work there has been a chance 
for inventive and constructive talent to meet the entirely 
new conditions. 

When electricity first came into use the Corliss engine 
was thought entirely too slow. High-speed engines had 
become partially developed and the new field developed 
them rapidly, and it was for a time given entirely over to 
them. 

The electric light company at Waterbury, Conn., went 

107 



Piston Valves. 

to the Corliss Company and asked them to build a cross- 
compound engine having a stroke of 4 feet and to fun at 
the rate of 80 revolutions per minute. This, at the time, 
was considered terrific speed, but the engine company 
undertook the work, which turned out highly satisfac- 
tory. Others worked in the same direction, and results 
showed that for hard work and for economy and long 
life, the Corliss engine built for the new conditions was 
still the favorite. 

A favorite valve for a long time for the piston valve. 
This is a straight valve moving in a case. Fig. 13 is a 
typical piston valve. As the steam passes by the ends 
and through the center, there is no pressure on the valve 
seat, and there is only the sliding friction due to its 
weight and that due to the tightness of the valve in its 
case. In some cases this valve is put in without any pack- 
ing rings of any kind, and being frictionless nearly, will 
be fairly tight for some months if neatly fitted. To use 
spring rings it is necessary to put bars across the port 
to prevent the rings expanding into the ports and getting 
caught. Another method is to make a shell for the out- 
side of the valve and expand it with set-screws. This 
makes as rigid a valve as one entirely solid, and has the 
single advantage of being adjustable by hand instead of 
getting a new valve. One builder for a time made a valve 
that could be adjusted from the outside when the engine 
was running, and he had the wrecks incident to such a 
device. 

The piston valves are made to operate at the ends of 
the cylinder, thus imitating the Corliss in the attempt to 
get short ports. Of necessity, their ports are longer than 
the Corliss, because of the shape of the valve, and also 
the port must go clear around the valve. 

108 



Advantages and Objections. 

The advantage of the piston valve is that its construc- 
tion is lathe work and can be quickly and cheaply made ; 
it is nearly frictionless, can be operated at a high rate of 
speed and requires very little oil ; all its mechanism can 
be light and easily handled by the governor. The objec- 
tions to it are the considerable clearance, the rather tortu- 
ous steam passages and the extreme probability of its 
leaking in a short time. 




Fig. 43 Double Ported Piston Valve for Valve Engine. 



For high rotative speeds the single valve can be made 
to give as good cards, except the compression, as a four 
valve with two eccentrics, with the same speed. The 
four-valve engine, however, will be the more economical 
under changes of load, because the exhaust valve closure 
is not disturbed by the governor and does not produce the 
excessive compression. 

The shorter the stroke, the greater the percentage of 
clearance. This is again increased by the number of times 
the clearance spaces are filled and emptied per minute. 

109 



About Engine Design. 

When looking up a medium-speed engine (there are 
no slow speeds now) sufficient valve area, small clear- 
ance, sufficient area for bearings and pins, and one that 
is easy of access to all parts for repairs, are the points 
that should be looked after. This also applies to engines 
of all classes. 

In former years engines were designed by practical 
engineers who had experience with them or who watched 
the operation of them after they were installed. They 
were also assembled in the shop by hand or hand tools, 
and all the mechanics had a taste of putting them together 
under conditions similar to those of the engineer in the 
engine-room, and they were made easy to get at, get apart 
and get together again. 

Of late years, altogether too many have been designed 
by draftsmen who had no knowledge of the practical 
handling of them after they had once left the shop, with 
the result that there are some fearful monstrosities. They 
are also put together with a traveling crane, and many 
nice points are not noticed by mechanics there. It is 
true that engines must be heavier than formerly, but there 
is no excuse for putting a stuffing box in in such a man- 
ner that the engineer can just reach it at arm's length 
through a hot hole that keeps his head and body out. 

Some builders put a sheet-steel case over the cylinder, 
and this case is fitted in such a manner that to put it on 
or remove it the whole valve motion must be taken off. 

One type of engine designed to be direct connected to 
electric generators has its main bearing so constructed 
that the armature must be blocked up, fields removed and 
shaft disconnected to get to the adjustment of the bear- 
ing. The builder says he does this to prevent monkeying 
with it; that it is too often the case that where things 

no 



Horizontal vs. Vertical. 

are handy to get at they are adjusted out of shape and 
use in a short time; that these journals will run two or 
three years without giving trouble if let alone, and that 
if they will do that, one can afford to be put to a little 
extra trouble when adjustments are so seldom required. 

When purchasing large cross-compound engines the 
difficulty of lubricating the low-pressure cylinder and the 
large number of cylinders of this class that have caused 
endless delays and expense, should be borne in mind. 

Another thing is the room they occupy. Said a manu- 
facturer to me: "We have been in the habit of put- 
ting in Corliss engines, cross-compound, owing to their 
durability, small need for repairs, reliability and econ- 
omy, but they take up too much room. In our business 
they have to be close to the mill machinery, they are right 
in the way of our work and reduce the production the 
mill ought to turn out, so that we have gone to putting 
in high-speed engines. These engines will have less life, 
will consume more coal, but our production is increased 
so much by the extra space that the extra space is worth 
many times the extra cost of fuel, etc., and we can well 
afford to put them in, let them wear out and then put in 
more." 

In these cases the vertical engine is the solution. The 
wear on the cylinders is slight, there is a big saving in 
cylinder oil and the floor space is small. 

There is one drawback — the weight is taken from the 
bottom of the cylinder and put on the crank pin, and also 
the engine is unbalanced, as the weight of the moving 
parts is all downward with the full^area of the piston to 
push them down, and only the area of piston less the area 
of piston rod to pull them up; also, the jerk that the 
engine gets at the bottom of the stroke when it takes 

III 




Fig. 44 . " Cylinder Designed to Balance Moving Parts on Vertical Engine. 



112 



Balancing Vertical Engines. 

steam at the bottom makes a noisy engine, and on boats 
gives disagreeable jerks. 

It is not possible to balance one of these engines by 
counterweights in the crank, as when the engine is on 
the bottom center the counterweight is in equilibrium. 
Some engineers argue that one side will balance the other 
through the shaft, but if they will stand by the shaft on 
a boat with the three-cylinder engines they will see that 
this is not true. 

Builders of engines with two-cylinders and cranks set 
at i8o degrees argue that in their case one side balances 
the other through the shaft when they have good counter- 
weights, but to balance such an engine with counter- 
weights would necessitate the putting in of a counter- 
weight in the low-pressure crank to make up the differ- 
ence between the high and low pressure moving parts, 
and putting none in the high-pressure crank, surely not 
a very mechanical device. 

Should the attempt be made to put sufficient counter- 
weight in the crank to balance the moving parts, it will 
be found that there is not sufficient room for the neces- 
sary weight. It is necessary to keep the pins and main 
journal keyed up snug to prevent jar and pound on the 
bottom, and this means an excessive amount of oil and 
excessive wear. Even with this, it is cheaper to put in 
new pins and brasses than new pistons and rebore large 
cylinders on horizontal engines. Builders of vertical 
engines will guarantee better economy for them than for 
the horizontal type. 

The writer designed and patented a cylinder to put 
on top of the steam cylinder of a vertical engine, as shown 
in Fig. 44. This device is simply a cylinder open at the 
bottom and with a small relief valve on top to relieve any 

113 



Pounds and their causes. 

air that may leak in. The weight of all the moving 
parts is ascertained, as well as the difference between the 
area of the piston at the bottom and top, and the area of 
the balancing piston is made to sustain this weight with 
a pressure of 12 pounds per square inch. Vacuum is 
formed at the top after the piston has traveled a short 
distance, and, as the bottom is open to the atmosphere, 
the whole moving parts are suspended on air and the 
resistance of the air going down carries the parts back 
to nearly the end of the stroke, when they are let down 
easily on the pin going over the top center. As they are 
supported at the bottom center by the small piston, the 
jar is removed and the parts can be run looser, with the 
result of less wear. This arrangement should remove 
the disagreeable jar on steamers caused by the engines 
going around the bottom center. 



Pounding from various causes. 

An engine that is not in line will not run quietly. 
Sometimes the engine wears out of line or the shaft gets 
out of level for want of proper adjustment at the right 
time ; it perhaps has been "tinkered" with and gotten out 
from that cause ; some portions may have worn faster than 
others ; the foundation may have not settled uniformly or 
some parts have been too weak and sprung out of shape. 

There are altogether too many cases where the 
engine was not put in proper alinement when built, or 
pins were not put in straight. 

A self-contained engine had been run for a number 
of years ; one of the wheels had become loose ; the cross- 
head and boxes on both ends of the rod were worn and 

114 



Weak Crossheads. 

che builders were directed to send new parts and an 
attempt would be made to get the wheel tight at the side 
of the engine. To this plan the builders objected, stating 
that they must have the engine returned to the shop to 
do a good job. This w^ould necessitate shutting down 
a large plant, but a breakdown gave them the oppor- 
tunity. 

The shaft, rod and crosshead were sent, but were 
delayed in returning, so that it was necessary to get it 
together and start up as quickly as possible. When the 
engine was started it pounded badly, but as the work 





i ' i 1 
1_ _J 1 ? 






1 




> — 










1 







Fig. 45. Weak points in Crossheads. 

required this engine to run continuously it meant con- 
siderable loss to stop and locate the trouble. Another 
engine was therefore purchased, so as to have a duplicate 
engine. 

Before this arrived the piston rod let go. New studs 
for the cylinder head and a new rod were made and 
hustled in in a few hours, and the engine continued at 
work. As all the hands were busy with this work, there 
could be no chance to hunt up the trouble. 

Before the spare engine was ready the crosshead 
let go at points shown by arrows in Fig. 45. This cross- 
head was cored out, as shown by dotted lines, and was 
rather weak at the square corners. 



11: 



Frames out of Line. 

The spare engine was gotten together and put into 
service. A new crosshead was procured by a nearby 
foundry, and when it was put in the precaution was 
taken to key the rod up snugly on the crank-pin and drop 
the other end down on to the crosshead pin. It fitted 
squarely. The rod was then disconnected from the 
crank-pin, and keyed up on to the crosshead, and then 
dropped down onto the crank-pin, and that came square. 
The engine was then started up, and it ran perfectly quiet. 




Fig. 46. Frame out of line. 



The old crosshead was so badly broken that just 
what the trouble was could not be determined, but the 
probability is that the pin was put in something as shown 
in Fig. 45, though not so crooked. 

Had the trial of the connecting rod been made with 
the first pin in the same manner that it was with the 
second, the trouble would have been discovered at the 
outset. When setting up engines it is a good plan to 
try the connecting rod, as described. 

Another error that has been found many times is 
shown in Fig. 46. A line put through the engine will show 
that the cylinder is not in line with the guides and will 
have to be thrown around by putting in shims at either 
O or E. 

116 



Twisted Guides. 

A not infrequent defect is shown in Fig. 47, and can 
be detected by placing a plumb, as shown. This is par- 
ticularly bad with V-guides. In one factory I have in 
mind there are four engines from the same builder with 
V-guides that stand in this manner. Fortunately, the 




Fig. 47. Guides out of live vertically. 

engines run forward and do not make as much trouble 
as the running backward. 

The only remedy is to trim dow^n the shoes at A 
and A' until the crossheads stand plumb. 

There is no excuse for a V-guide. There have been 
cases where the foundation under a cylinder has settled 

117 



Crank Pin not Central. 

more under one side than the other and twisted the 
guides. 

Pounding from this cause is a compound noise, and 
while it takes place on the center the pound will be at 



^^^ 



O 



Fig. 48. Crank Pin not Central. 



the crosshead and crank-pin both, but not exactly the 
same time. 

Another trouble that sometimes occurs is that the 
center line through the engine does not come through 
center of pin, as shown in Fig. 48, where the center of 

118 



Cranks out of Square. 

pin is the line A, while the line through engine is at B. 

The remedy for this is to trim down one side of the 
brasses and add on to the other side, as shown in Fig. 48. 
When they have to be cut off on the side toward the 
crank and the rod is round, care must be taken that the 















1 






/ 




^ 











Fig. 50. 

Crank disk out by plumb. 
Crank pin put in crooked. 



large part of the rod does not get too close to the crank 
disk when the crank-pin is at the forward center. If the 
crosshead is one-sided, the same course may be pursued. 
To determine if the shaft is level, suspend a plumb 
line, as in Fig. 49. If it is out, as shown, the pound will 

119 



Pistons too Small. 

not be on the center, but when the crank-pin is nearly half 
way between. The only remedy is to make the shaft 
level and with a pin put in crooked, as in Fig. 50, a new 
pin put in straight will be necessary. ~ 

Should a piston be too small, as shown in Fig. 51, 
and a larger force of the steam strike it on one side, the 
piston will be forced to the other side and there will be 




Fig. 5 I . Piston too Small. 

a severe pound. When the cylinder head is taken off, 
nothing out of the way can be seen. The remedy is a 
piston with a broader bearing at the bottom. 

A cylinder having shoulders will pound. A Corliss 
or similar valve having end play may pound if the steam 
impinges just right to force it endwise. The valve will 
wear smoother if it has end play, and unless the pound 
is too great it will be better to leave it. It can be eased 

120 



Loose Glands or Packing. 

somewhat or stopped entirely by putting a little plate 
and spring- at the end and put in a bolt through the valve 
bonnet to adjust the tension of the spring. 

Pounding is sometimes caused by side play in rod 
brasses, but the engine must be out of line somewhere 
to make this serious. 

A loose gland or loose metallic packing in the 
stuffing-box will make a disagreeable pound. A loose 
piston rod, either in the crosshead or the piston, will 
pound. 



^ 



T^ 



I 



Fig. 52. Lining up from piston rod. 

Sometimes, if brasses get loose so as to turn in the 
straps or stub ends, they will cause a pound. If an 
engine is working very light and the internal surface of 
the c}linder is exposed chiefly to low pressure and to the 
condenser, a large amount of steam will be condensed 
when the valve opens and will cause a snapping in the cyl- 
inder like entrained water. This is sometimes mistaken 
for pounding, but it is really water. It will wash off the 
cylinder oil from the wearing surfaces, which might 
cause cutting, but other than this does no real harm. 

When the piston rod runs straight, a line can be 
strung, as shown in Fig. 52. Put the engine as near the 
outer center as will allow measurements to be made from 
both sides of the disk above the rod. Put a stick tightly 



121 



Locomotive Pounds. 

back of the gland and draw a line X parallel with the 
piston rod, measuring from B B'. Then take the distance 
from the disk at C C 

Should there be a crank instead of a disk, both in 
this case and in Fig. 48, measure from the end of the pin 
on one center, turn the engine to the opposite center, and 
make the same measurements in this position. An engine 
in perfect alinement with the bearings well fitted and 
keyed fairly snug will run smoothly with very little com- 
pression. All that will be necessary is to have the 
exhaust valves close quickly enough to have sufficient lap 
to make them tight on the admission of steam. 

A locomotive engineer discovered a pound on one 
side, and located it in the crosshead. He took out the 
piston rod, put a thickness of letter-paper around the 
taper, put the rod back and drew it up with the key, and 
the trouble was over. 

When paper can be drawn down tight and held rigid 
it makes an excellent packing for this purpose, or for any 
place that needs filling up, even top of a foundation for 
supporting an engine. 

On a stationary engine a pound at the crosshead was 
found to be the jam nut had become loosened. When 
these nuts get loose they give warning by pounding. 
When the rod gets loose on a key it will do the same 
thing. Also when a piston gets loose there will be a 
pound in the cylinder. If it is simply forced on the rod 
and riveted over it will rarely give warning when loose, 
but comes off at once. 

A pound was located at the crosshead of an engine 
and the men in charge were unable to find it, as the jam 
nut and everything about the crosshead was snug and 
tight. A consulting engineer was sent for, who un- 

122 



Set screws don't hold fly-wheels. 

screwed the jam nut and the rod was found broken off 
in the center of the nut. 

An engineer was sent for, with the information that 
on one of the engines the crank pin was heating and 
pounding. This was caused by the pin being loose in 
the crank. 

Should a crank or wheel become loose on the shaft 
they will give notice by a creaking noise, sometime be- 
fore there is any danger. There will also be a slight 
exudition of oil having a rusty appearance. 

A certain engine had a shaft 14" diameter on which 
was a wheel 20 feet diameter, having a heavy rim. 

This wheel had been creaking at the hub for some 
time. The engineer finally decided it was getting seri- 
ous. After a talk with some of his engineering friends 
he submitted the following plan to the management : 
Have a new shaft and crank made. Borrow some small 
engines and set them up to do the lighter work and get 
a sufficient amount of the heavier work ahead, and thus 
keep up the product. Then take the wheel and shaft out, 
bore the hub to fit the new shaft and put it in service. 

It was estimated that the loss from stoppage of this 
engine was $1,000 per day. 

Now, in these works there was a machinist who 

was styled M — . M , who was a good talker and who 

had succeeded in getting the management to think there 
was nothing in mechanics he was not master of. He 
reported there was no danger with the wheel, but should 
anything happen he could tighten it without any such 
expense. 

A few weeks after this the engineer left for other 
fields, and shortly afterwards the wheel slid along the 
shaft until it brought up against the foundation. This 

123 



Where they failed. 

meant a shutdown. After a day's delay ($i,ooo) the 
machinist shoved the wheel back to place, and the engine 
started and ran a few days, when it was again over 
against the foundation. 

The wheel was again shoved back to place, two 
steel set screws were put in in a slanting direction, as 




Fig. 53. Set screws that did'nt hold the fly-wheei. 



shown in Fig. 53, extending through into the shaft. After 
a few days' delay (more $1,000) the engine was again 
started, and ran a few months, when, as was to be ex- 
pected, the set screws broke off level with the shaft, and 
the wheel was again against the foundation. A new 
shaft was then procured, and the wheel put on in proper 
shape. This required a shutdown of a month. 

124 



Pressing crank pins. 

A heavy-rimmed wheel on an engine cannot be held 
with set screws, but must hug the shaft tightly. 

This engine had a crank pin 7" diameter, and three 
of them had become loose. 

A new pin was made, .01 inch larger than the hole, 
estimated to require 100,000 pounds pressure to force it 
in place. 

When about half way in, taking about 90,000 pounds 
pressure, one of the straps broke, and by the time another 
was made and in place it required 150,000 pounds and 
some persuasion with a hammer. This pin did not come 
loose. This was at the time when the engineer was look- 
ing up the best way to take care of the wheel. At the 
time there was a mechanic on the premises superintending 
the erection of machinery built b}' a large machinery firm 
and the subject of forced fits came up. 

This mechanic was not in favor of building machinery 
so as to require high pressures to force them on. When 
asked what he would do if they got loose, he said he would 
bush them. Asked if his people had ever done that, he 
replied, "Yes, lots of them." Further discussion seemed 
useless. 

Lining up an Engine. 

The writer had the annoying experiences which most 
engineers encounter with pounding, hot journals, water, 
etc. He learned that the most fruitful cause of pounding 
is want of alinement. Keying up an engine out of line 
makes the trouble worse in many cases. 

The old V-guide that holds a cross-head and con- 
necting rod rigid in a straight line when the rest of the 
engine is in such shape that it \\ants to turn a little is 

12^ 



Lining up Engines. 





54 55 

Figs. 54-55 Two ways of holding a center line. 

one of the annoyances. If the bottom of one of the main 
journals wears faster than the other the \^-g"uide makes 
a fuss about it, whereas a round guide would go all right. 
In one case where the foundation under the cylinder 
had settled slightly, so that it threw the guides slightly 
out of line the struggle between cross-head and crank as 
to which should be master was noisy. As usual at such 
times, the shop was too busy to shut down and put in a 
new foundation without warning, so it was ascertained 





Figs. 56-57. Two views of stake. 
126 



Holding the line. 

how much was necessary to turn the cross-head so that it 
stood straight, planed one side of the cross-head at the 
top and the other at the bottom put in liners along-side 
the shoes, and the conflict was over. Bored guides would 
have saved that work. 

To ascertain if the engine is in line, take out all the 
reciprocating parts and put a line through the cylinder 
reaching to front of the crank. This line should be a fine, 
braided line, of silk. It can be fastened and centered in 
the back end of the cylinder with a stick bolted with one 




Fig. 58. For holding the line. 



bolt, as in Fig. 54, or can reach across and be fastened with 
two, as in Fig. 55. In front of the crank set a stake that 
can be adjusted sideways, as shown in front and side views 
in Figs. 56 and 57. Put the line as near central of the 
cylinder as possible and draw it tight so that there shall 
be no sag. Commence at the back end of the cylinder and 
center the line. 

A better way for holding the end of the line is to notch 
a piece of iron, as shown in Fig. 58, and put screws 
into the board through the notches. The iron strip can 

127 



Shimming the frame. 

then be fastened just tight enough to hold it in place 
and raised or lowered to suit the work. Let the cord lay 
across the iron strip and suspend a weight on it sufficient- 
ly heavy to hold the cord tight. 

The best thing to use for caliper is a pine stick nearly 
sharp at one end and a pin in the other that can be 
drawn out or pv.shed in for adjustment. Have 
one for the end of the cylinder and one for the 
stuffing-box. x\fter the line is central at the cylinder end, 
try it through the stuffing-box, moving the line at its 
support at the stake in front of the crank. When central 



■ff 



C=^ 




r_ 


- 


- 



Fig. 59. Lining frame with shims. 



here, try the back end of the cylinder and so alternate 
until the line is central at both points. It is then in line 
with the cylinder and all other parts should be in line 
with it. Try the guides. One builder had most of the 
engines that he built -and erected crooked at the point A, 
Fig. 59, and shims were required to throw the cylinder 
around into line with the guides. 

Bring the crank-pin down to the line, or if the crank 
is down, which is the better position, bring it up to the 
line and see if the line is central to the pin. Turn the 
crank around to the other center. If the line is central 
at both points, it is all right ; if the line comes one side of 
the center on one side and on the other side on the other, 

128 



A quick alignment test. 

the outside journal wants swinging around, if a single 
engine; if double, one of the cylinders may have to be 
moved. If the line comes to the same side of the center 
of the pin when the crank is in both positions, then the 
shaft journals are not set right. 

The cheapest and quickest way to overcome this is 
to take off the required amount of metal from one side of 



/ 



9 

Fig. 60. Leveling shaft by plumb line. 

the crank-pin boxes and sweat, or solder an equal amount 
on the other side. 

A temporary alinement can be made without taking 

the engine apart by putting the engine on the back center 

and putting a line alongside the engine parallel with the 

piston rod and then measuring off to the crank-pin or to 

points on the disk from that line. 



129 



Where the belt man was wrong. 

To find if the shaft is level, drop a plumb line outside 
of the crank-pin when it is up, as in Fig. 60, and then turn 
the engine over until the pin is down. This can be done 
with steam and' without disconnecting anything. Some 
do it by dropping a line down the side of the wheel. 

A foundation for an engine, shafting, etc., was made 
and the engine was put in place. The shaft man came 
along and set up the shafting by marks that were given 
him. ^ The man who was to put on the belt went to line 
up the pulley on the shaft, and it was out. He sent for 
the engineer and told him that to get the engine in line 
with the shaft the back end of the engine would have to 
be swung around 13^ inches. As the foundation bolts 
were cemented in, this meant the cutting out of the holes 
in cylinder feet and a bad job. A transit was procured 
and the whole job gone over, proving that everything was 
in line and the work put up correctly. The belt man was 
asked how he arrived at the conclusion that the engine 
was out of line with the shaft and he put a line alongside 
the pulley on the engine and another alongside the pulley 
on the driven shaft, which showed that one of them was 
badly out. He was asked to turn the line shaft half way 
around and when this was done the work was out in the 
opposite direction. 

A pulley may be turned up true, but it is not always 
put on the shaft true — in fact, seldom is — so that when 
anything is attempted by line by using the side of a pulley, 
it should be demonstrated first that the pulley runs abso- 
lutely true. 

Sometimes a pillow block is not set absolutely level 
like Fig. 61, and there will be heating on one end, and 
after a time this bearing will be out of shape, so that the 
only remedy is re-boring. 

130 



About pedestal bearings. 

It has been the custom to make crank bearings like 
Fig. 62, with the base of the bottom shell narrower than 
the side shells, so that when the cap was screwed down 
hard the bottom shell was spread out, causing the bearing 
to heat. The base of the bottom shell should be as wide 
as the sides. 

Eccentrics are usually held in place by set-screws 
through the hub of the eccentric and against the shaft. 
This forces one side of the hub away from the shaft, and 






Fig. 61, Shaft out of line. 



Fig. 62, Poor bottom shell. 



light eccentrics are distorted, causing heating. One 
builder has recognized this evil and his practice is to 
drill into the shaft and draw the eccentric to the shaft, 
thus keeping it in true form. There is a slot in the hub 
at the bolt hole for adjusting the eccentric. 

The question of the wear of rings and cylinders of 
modern engines is an interesting one. 

An engineer was interested in having four large 
engines built and there was a verbal agreement that the 
last cut should be with a ^-inch feed and the cylinder 
left rough. When the engines came the cylinders were 



131 



Cylinder Oils. 

smooth. He went to the agent and then to the superin- 
tendent to know why they were bored smooth. He didn't 
know and wanted to know "What there was about boring 
cylinders anyhow." The engineer told him he had started 
a great many engines and never knew of a cut cylinder. 
Cutting a new cylinder did not seem to be possible. 
Since he went into the electric business there was all 
kinds of trouble with cut cylinders — even one of the super- 
intendent's engines, only a 22-inch cylinder, had been cut 
while in charge of his own man. He went to investi- 
gating and found that with coarse cuts and the cylinders 
full of little ridges, any clinging, should it start, would 
only take off the top of the ridge. It took a year to 
wear a cylinder smooth, but it was tight all the time, and 
when it did get its surface it was a natural one and there 
was no trouble. When electricity came into the field it 
brought a new class of men who thought they should be 
bored smooth. The trouble with this is that if there was 
a disposition to cling, a little shaving would start and go 
the whole length of the cylinder. 

Cylinder oils have many times been blamed unjustly 
for cut cylinders. One builder had a low pressure cylin- 
der cut and there seemed no way to prevent it. He took 
off the cylinder head of the low pressure cylinder, run- 
ning with one end and the high pressure side, and had 
an oil syringe so that oil could be injected to any part of 
the cylinder. Oil was applied liberally but there were 
spots all over the cylinder that would get red hot and 
it was not possible to prevent it with oil. There were 
two packing rings and he had an idea that possibly these 
packing rings brushed the oil away. He took out one ring 
and rounding the edges of the other and the engine went 
off without any more trouble. 

^32 ... 



Cylinder Bushings. 

One large engine with the cylinder bushed had the 
bushing cut and another was put in only to go the same 
way. A third was made. On boring it the iron was 
found to be soft, but was put in to run until they could 
get a hard one. When the hard one was ready it was 
found that the soft one was wearing all right and the 
trouble there was over. 

Babbitt liberally applied to both junk and packing 
rings has been used in some cases with good results. 
One builder told of a place where he had trouble and 
put in babbitt which cured the trouble, and he thought 
he had a remedy for all such cases. Other engines he 
put it into were badly cut. Rings of ordinary copper 
were then tried, and they started off beautifully, but in 
the next case they proved no better than iron rings. This 
builder has given up being sure. 

Exhaust Pipes for Vertical Engines. 

Vertical engines have come into use for various rea- 
sons and will be used more when their utility is more 
generally understood. 

The large low-pressure cylinders on compound hori- 
zontal engines require an excessive amount of com- 
pounded cylinder oil, and even then there is much trouble 
with many. 

Where water is bad, or scarce, or dear, and surface 
condensers are used, it is very difficult to separate the 
compounded oil. 

Where space is limited the vertical is the only 
solution. 

There are some verticals sold whose builders have 

133 



Exhaust passages. 

not had practical experience, and as a result the engines 
give a great deal of trouble. An example of this is shown 
in Fig. 63. This shows the principle on which the exhaust 






L^ 



Figs, 63-65-66, Exhaust outlets. 
Fig, 64. Low pressure piston, 

side of this engine is built. On the opposite side are the 
steam valves, also piston valves. 

This engine has a large clearance, but the chief defect 
is in the exhaust outlet. 

It will be noticed that this is in the center. All the 



134 



Water in Cylinders. 

condensed water from the top is thrown to the bottom. 
When the bottom valve ooens, the water from both top 
and bottom must pass upward and turn the right angle 
with the steam to get out. This it will do if the engine 
is loaded and the exhaust passages are filled with steam. 
When the engine has a light load the water falls back, 
enters the bottom of the cylinder and makes all kind of 
trouble. This engine has pistons with conical faces, and 
the bottom head is a beautiful water-pocket. It is a 
delight for the engineer to take care of the rod packing 
and scoop up the water that is thrown in all directions. 
The maker of metallic packing for this engine has little 
peace in life. The valves being of the piston type, there 
is no escape for the water except such as has gone down 
the rods, and there are cracked pistons, and broken jour- 
nal cap bolts, these apparently being the weaker part of 
the engine. 

A section of the low-pressure piston is shown in 
Fig. 63. The piston is a single casting with a rebate joint 
for junk ring, and the follower is a ring of metal held 
in position with tap bolts. The distress in this cylinder 
from water showed itself in the loosening and breaking 
of these tap bolts. 

This engine drives a railway generator. The cars 
are of the 60-seat type, and run at regular railroad speed. 
The schedule is such that for about one-half hour the 
cars are at the terminal stations or on down grades. At 
such times the pistons pounding on the water at the bot- 
tom of the cylinders is a delight to mechanical ears. 
When the cars strike the up grades, which a portion of 
them do nearly simultaneously, and the engine is loaded, 
the water will be driven out and quiet reigns until a short 
time after the light load comes on. 

135 



Breaks from Water. 

Most of the trouble could be obviated by making the 
exhaust passage like that shown by the dotted lines. The 
pockets caused by the conical pistons and at bottoms of 
valves would give trouble, however, in keeping the rods 
tight. 

An engine was wrecked by the breaking of the cross- 
head end of the connecting rod. This end was made of 
ordinary yellow brass screwed on to the end of rod. 

The throttle had been closed by an automatic device, 
and the engineer had unhooked the wrist-plate to stop the 
engine by hand in the usual manner, when this casting 
gave way. The question then arose as to the cause of the 
casting breaking at just that time. 

Examination of the break showed that there were two 
small places where cinder had got in the mixture when 
poured and there was also evidence of crystallization. The 
engine was a vertical Corliss type, shown in Fig. 65. The 
exhaust was the old-fashioned kind, with the exhaust 
chamber surrounding a portion of the outside of the cylin- 
der. This type is bad enough when horizontal, but when 
set up on end it is barbarous. 

We have here the same feature in a modified form, 
as mentioned in the piston valve engine, with two excep- 
tions in its favor. It has a flat head, and there is a 
chance to keep the rod tight. It has Corliss steam valves, 
and there is a chance for a partial escape of water into the 
steam pipe. 

When the engine runs light, there will be some shock 
when it strikes the water that in time will cause the weak- 
est part to give way. 

This type of engine, either vertical or horizontal, 
should have the exhaust chamber arranged as shown in 
Fig. 66, the valves in circular form with port through the 

136 



Piston Rods And Follower Bolts. 

center and seat on what in this engine is the back of the 
valve. This brings the steam pressure top of the valve 
to hold it on its seat, thus doing away with springs, as 
well as reducing clearance. Vertical engines should have 
the outlet at bottom as shown, horizontal in center. 
Water, in these cases, does not flood the cylinder or cause 
immediate wreck, but it will cause distress on weak parts 
for future trouble. Engines working with full and con- 
tinuous load will generally clear themselves of water. It 
is the irregularly loaded ones that give cause for appre- 
hension. 

It may be noticed that in both these cases the valves 
are shown reversed from the position they would be in 
when in operation. This is to show the easy path for the 
water to flow back into the cylinder when the light 
exhaust has left it and the cylinder is empty. 

These are cases where the designer ''didn't think." 



Piston Rods and Follower Bolts. 

An engineer was told one morning that the back cylin- 
der head of one of the engines had gone through the 
engine-room door and was lying out in the yard. 

The rod was what is known as a screwed rod and had 
broken just outside the jam nut; the piston had taken out 
head, doors and all. The end of the cylinder was cracked 
some, but it looked as though it could be strapped if a new 
rod and piston could be had. The front head was all right. 
The engineer took the jam nut for size of thread and oth- 
er necessary dimensions and started for the builders, feel- 
ing that a screwed rod was not just the thing. At a place 
where he changed cars the train he was to take was half 

137 



Key or Screw — Which ? 

an hour late and when it arrived the locomotive had been 
through his experience. 

A piston rod had broken in the key slot in cross-head. 
Here was a keyed rod broken; at the shop he saw an 
engine cylinder wrecked by a break in the key. Here 
were two keyed rods broken to one screwed. Which plan 
was the safer? 

After he arrived at the shop he received a telephone 
from home that as the cylinder cooled off the cracks 
extended and new ones showed up ; that there was no 
hope of saving it, and the only thing to do was to get a 
new cylinder, which was done. 

There was this difference between the stationary engine 
and the locomotive : The bolts holding the head of the 
stationary engine were made too large, and when the 
strain came and something had to go, the expensive cyl- 
inder took the punishment. On the locomotive the work- 
ing strain on the bolts had been carefully calculated ; they 
were made strong enough for that and no more, and when 
the shock came the bolts let go, the cylinder was unin- 
jured as well as the head and piston. All that was neces- 
sary was a new rod and a new set of small bolts. 

If stationary engine builders would take lessons from 
locomotive builders in this respect, there would be less 
disastrous wrecks when there is trouble with the back 
head. 

There is one other trouble that has caused a great 
many bills of expense, and that is : follower bolts on the 
piston. With good, tough iron bolts nicely fitted there 
should be no trouble. Many bolts are not properly fitted 
and they get loose and come out, and but few engines 
have clearance enough for them. A follower bolt should 
be fitted so as to require some pressure of the wrench all 

138 



Corliss' Way of Doing It. 

the way. It should not stick when part way in. It should 
be set up snug, but not enough pressure should be put 
upon it to strain it in any way. A great many follower 
bolts are strained beyond their elastic limit and they 
break when at work. Either of these evils is the result 
of carelessness or incompetency. According to the obser- 
vation of Mr. Corliss, the most prolific cause of wrecked 
engines was broken follower bolts, and these broken bolts 
were caused by screwing them up too hard. It was a rare 
thing if they got loose. To avoid the possibility of get- 
ting too much strain on them, during the latter part of 




Fig. 67. Corliss follower bolt. 



Fig. 68. Tapered plug for screwing in. 



his life he had them made like Fig. (yj, the bolt large, with 
fine thread and a tapered socket in the end. This was set 
up with a tapered plug', Fig. 68, so that when a certain 
strain was put on the plug it would come out. This 
worked well for a time, but with some engineers who 
did not adjust their pistons often the bolts would stick 
and the tapered plug would not hold, so engineers had 
to invent something to start the bolts, and the same device 
that would start them when stuck would also set them up 
too tight. However, these bolts were so large there was 
little trouble from breaking. 

139 



Prof. Sweet's Plan. 

During later years, when the practice has been to make 
parts interchangeable, some builders have bought ma- 
chine bolts of steel, and in most cases of this kind the 
bolts are loose fitting, especially so after they have been 
in use and have been removed a few times. 'An old bolt, 
or a new one put into an old hole, makes a bad job, and 
generally they are too small. If builders of stationary 
engines would make the follower bolts on pistons larger 
and pay more attention to the fitting, and make the back 
cylinder head bolts smaller, there would be less expense 
for their customers from breakdowns. 




Fig. 69. Sweets' flower bolt. 




Fig. 70. A slow-acting (?) junk ring. 



Prof. John E. Sweet writes: 

*'We overcome the difficulty perfectly by doing away 
with that sore of bolt. The drawing shows what we use 
and the success comes from riveting in the stud and turn- 
ing down the body to the bottom of the thread. The stud 
will stretch one-half inch before it will break, and before 
that takes place the end of the nut will be shoved ofif, and 
the man with the long-handled wrench will have a 
warning. 

The elasticity of the long body is so much that it is 
like putting a spring washer under the nut, and they don't 
work loose. The nuts we use are Tobin bronze, capped 
over so as to prevent steam from getting to the thread or 



140 



Piston Packing Rings. 

leaking^. Cost ! Yes, but is not the preventing of the trou- 
ble — and this does it — worth the cost? 

The recesses shown in the piston rings in the drawing 
are cast eccentric, giving the effect of an eccentric ring and 
parallel surfaces in the grooves in the piston. The rings 
are limited expansion — that is, the ends are hooked togeth- 
er so as to prevent their crowding against the surface of 
the cylinder, but when the whole is up to running temper- 
ature they are a mechanical fit in the cylinder. They cost, 
too, twice or three times as much as ordinary rings, but 
they are worth it." 

For many years pistons were made with rings set out 
with springs and screws. In one respect this plan was 
excellent when skill was used in the adjustment. The 
rings had the same tension at all parts of the cylinder and 
the cylinder was always the same size the whole length. 
Later came the self-adjusting steam packing rings, which 
wore the cylinder large on the ends. Then came the vari- 
ous sectioned packing rings set out with springs and all 
self-adjusting. Many of this type are ingenious; simple 
and do good work. The snap ring has pprobably the 
most advocates. 

The concern an M. E. was with at one time rented a 
factory and power to another concern. The engine had 
steam packing in the piston and the cylinder being in bad 
shape it was decided to rebore it and put in new packing. 
The engineer wanted steam packing rings and the M. 
E. proposed to let him have what he wanted with the plea 
that a man made happy would take better care of the 
machine. The president said ''No. Put in the same 
packing we have on our own engines," and a pair of snap 
rings were put in. 

The engineer spent several evenings taking off the 

141 



"Slow Acting" Piston Rings. 

cylinder head trying to find something the matter with 
the packing. At last he gave up, and one evening wanted 
the machinist who fitted the packing to come and look at 
it. He had the wheel blocked, and turned on full head of 
steam, but not a particle of steam or a drop of water 
showed. He said nothing of it to the M. E., but was 
always a little sore because he did not get the steam 
packing. The steam packing would have cost about 60 
per cent, more and the cylinder would have been out of 
shape much quicker with it. 

One maker of steam packing claims that his rings are 
made in such shape that the steam acts on them slowly. 
A cross-section is something like Fig. 66, and his claim is 
that the beveled edge prevents the steam from acting 
quickly. As well claim that steam acts on a conical pis- 
ton slowly. 

With most packings that are put in junk rings, the 
junk ring has to be removed to get the rings out, and 
unless the ports are well blocked up there is trouble with 
them, and getting rings over the counterbores is at times 
exasperating. 

Some builders — the Bass company being the first — 
make their rings so that the packing rings can be removed 
and replaced without removing the junk ring. This 
makes the examining of the packing and truing up of the 
piston a quick and easy job. It has been remarked on 
several occasions that it appears to be the settled policy 
on the part of some builders to make their engines as 
unhandy and expensive to take care of as possible. One 
of these things is a solid piston. A soHd piston is heavy, 
it cannot be centered ; if the ring breaks, or if it is thought 
one is broken, the rod packing must be removed, rod 
taken from cross-head, the whole arrangement taken out 

142 



Stopping a Pound. 

and then the whole thing put back. A job that with a 
proper piston could have been done in an hour takes half 
a day to a day and lots of extra help. When a man con- 
fesses he can build nothing but a solid piston it is a con- 
fession that he has not the "know how." 

Many engines have a pound at the back end of the 
cylinder. Some engineers claim to have discovered the 
cause, which is a pounding piston, and they want a large 
sum for pointing out the remedy. An engineer had a 





Fig. 67. Junk ring too smnll. 



Fig. 68. A remedy for this. 



heavy pound in the back end of a cylinder and took off 
the head and removed packing, but found nothing to 
indicate that there was any trouble. There was nothing 
out of the way, except the junk ring was small and the 
piston could move sideways i£ the force of the entering 
steam should strike the piston heavier on one side than 
the other. Fig. 67 shows this in an exaggerated form. He 
made a new junk ring with new snap packing rings, the 
junk ring being turned the exact size of the cylinder, then 
set ofi the center so as to turn, the top of the ring off to 



143 



High Speed Engines. 

allow for clearance. This is shown in Fig. 68. A ring 
turned in this manner will fit the cylinder nearly half of 
its circumference and there can be no side movement. 
After this there was no more "pounding piston." 

The joints of the packing rings can be anywhere in the 
lower portion of the junk ring and the piston will be 
tight, even should they be open for one-fourth of the 
circumference. This may not be the cause of a pound- 
ing piston, but with a junk ring made in this manner 
there will be no pounding, also the packing will be tight 
with packing joints on the bottom. 

Where High Speed Engines Pay. 

There are many cases where light machinery, like fans, 
small dynamos, etc., is operated where power is wanted 
when the main engine is shut down. These are required 
to run at high rotative speed, and in such cases it is a 
good policy to investigate the small engines running in a 
case with the moving parts continually slushed with oil 
and water. 

For those who like all parts in plain sight where every- 
thing can be examined thoroughly at any time and ad- 
justments easily made, there are a number of high-speed 
machines of this character that are doing excellent work. 

For light work at night it often pays to have these 
engines so placed that they can be hitched on at any 
time. For places that belting and shafting costs too 
much to fit up, these engines are valuable, especially where 
steam is used about the mill and the cost of piping not 
great. Many a large engine has been materially injured 
by running too light a load evenings, to say nothing of 
the economy. 

144 



Electricity in Place of Shafting. 

In an electric station an i8-inch cylinder Corliss engine 
required more coal after 12 o'clock than a high-speed 
engine doing the same work. The latter engine had a 
12-inch cylinder and the load was just a full load and it 
was doing its best service. 

It is becoming the practice to use electricity and thus 
save the installation and friction of shafting and belts. 
Large, tight belts can make sufficient friction to consume 
a great deal of coal. This is the proper thing to do when 
machines can be grouped so that too small motors are not 
used. In this case the engine is large, and should there 
be small loads to be run through the evening it would 
be a good plan to use a small engine for the purpose rath- 
er than run the large engine with the electric equipment. 

Turbines have come to stay, but just what can be ex- 
pected of them is not yet known. So far, one can get as 
good guarantees for economy from builders of vertical 
engines, and in some cases horizontal engines, as from 
turbine builders. 

There is one case where the claim is made that the 
company operating the plant does not know what either 
system is using, but they do know that when the turbines 
are in operation but half the fuel is used that is required 
to operate the same plant with high-grade Corliss en- 
gines. Their Corliss engines should produce a mechani- 
cal horse-power with not to exceed 135^ pounds of water 
per hour. This would make the turbines running with 
6% pounds. Evidently something is wrong. The tur- 
bine has a tremendous peripheral speed amounting to 
30,000 feet per minute. 

There are cases where the engine builder makes great 
promises about the performance of his engines and guar- 
antees great results. The engine is sold f. o. b. factory. 

145 



Satisfactory Engines. 

After the engine is put in use it is found faulty and does 
not come up to the guarantee, and when the builder is 
appealed to to make it good he falls back on the claim 
that the engine was sold f . o. b. factory, and after it leaves 
the factory it is the customer's machine and he has noth- 
ing further to do with it. He sends a man to erect it 
and his work is inferior, and when complaint is made 
he claims that he furnished the man as an accommoda- 
tion; that the man during the erection was working for 
the customer and under the customer's direction ; that the 
engine was f. o. b. factory and the customer is at fault 
if he does not see that the man does his work right. 

Two cases of this kind have come to my notice, 
both of them from one firm. The better plan is to insist 
that the engine builder shall deliver and erect his own 
engine and be responsible for his work and his men. 

Steam pressures are increasing, which is of advantage 
in many ways where there is a large amount of power 
and the work is continuous. Because of this, there are 
some mill owners who hear of the high pressures and 
think they must not be outdone, so put in engines of no 
more than 500 horse-power, that think they must use 160 
pounds or more steam pressure, and they only run ten 
hours per day. 

One case that came to my attention was of a man 
that put in a single 24-inch cylinder and arranged to carry 
160 pounds steam pressure, and put in piping, heater, 
etc., none too heavy for 100 pounds. 

The excessively high steam pressures have not yet 
demonstrated so much economy as to warrant the neces- 
sary extra weight, piping and accessories for ordinary 
small and medium powers for light and medium work. 



146 



Hot Boxes and Bearing Metal. 

A firm had a new engine which, in common with 
engines of that time, had all of its bearings of bronze. 
The outer journal was short for a regular wheel, but this 
being in a rolling mill, an extra heavy wheel was put on 
and put close to the outer bearings, and there was a hot 
journal right ofif. 

Stove blacking — the black lead of those days — sulphur, 
salt pork, etc., were tried without avail, and cold water 
was the only reliable thing that would allow work to con- 
tinue, and cold water was used as long as that engine was 
run. The crank-pin boxes were also bronze and these 
had spells of heating. After a trial of several cooling 
mixtures, white lead, thinned to the consistency of paint 
with lubricating oil, was found to be the best, cooling the 
quickest and leaving the pin smooth. This was applied 
by taking a small funnel, putting the forefinger of the left 
hand over the bottom until the oil hole was reached and 
then holding the funnel with the right hand. This, of 
course, is not possible with high-speed engines, but 
there are a number of ways that suggest themselves as 
different conditions arise. There is a mineral called bary- 
tes that is used extensively in the adulteration of white 
lead, an3 if this is used it will make trouble, but genu- 
ine white lead is an excellent cure for hot journals. 

Cold water is a sure thing if enough can be used, but 
there are many places where it cannot, as it would ruin 
belts or machinery. An M. E. went into an engine-room 
one afternoon and found them shut down with a hot main 
journal, and they could only run a few minutes at a time. 
They could not use water because it would not do to let 
it run into the wheel-pit. He called for some white lead 

147 



Cooling Hot Bearings. 

and some ice ; mixed up the lead and showed them how 
to apply it, put the ice on to the cap of the journal and 
built a fence around it with waste that would absorb near- 
ly all of the water and at the same time keep the melted 
ice spread over the whole top. The engineer said if he 
could only run long" enough to bring down the goods they 
were to ship that day they would be satisfied. The M. E. 
called again in two hours, found everybody happy, jour- 
nal cool and the engineer did not have to work that night. 

Bronze boxes are nearly gone by and their use is very 
rare, babbit metal and the cheaper white metals having 
taken its place. Some of the white lining metals are no 
better than bronze, and they have a way of melting out 
that is not pleasant. 

One journal, 14x26, used to have spells of heating 
without any apparent cause. After ten years of service 
it was thought best to put in some new shells, and in 
order that they should be all right, the engineer had the 
lining metal made up and sent to the builder who made 
the new shells. As there was considerable work to be 
done, they sent a man from the shop to put them in. This 
man evidently had had experience with new shells on old 
journals and was careful to make all preparations for hot 
work, even having a hose laid. 

Everything went off cool and all right and the engine- 
man expressed his astonishment, and the following con- 
versation took place: 

Engineer — But those shells have babbitt metal. 

Engineman — We put in babbitt metal. 

Engineer — What kind? 

Engineman — The best we can get. 

Engineer — How much do you pay? 

Engineman — Twenty-two cents. 

148 



Crank Pin and Cross Head Boxes. 

Engineer — They cost thirty cents without the labor. 
Babbitt's receipt called for copper 4 parts, antimony 8 
parts, and the best Banca tin 96 parts. This is the same, 
except it has only 85 parts tin and is a little harder, and 
you will notice that when first cast it has a slight tinge 
of yellow. It will stand hammering and at the same time, 
when chipped, the chips will fly all over the room. 

The outer journal of this engine had a way of getting 
very hot persistently. Taking off the cap revealed a small 
line about 1-16 of an inch wide that was very bright and 
there was so much friction that oil fed through the cup 
would have no effect. 

The cap was removed and a wooden box with a lid 
made, and this was packed with waste, when a very little 
oil would run it all right. This shaft was made from 
horseshoe scrap and a piece of steel caulk might have 
made the hard spot. 

It has been the custom for years to line the crank-pin 
boxes with babbitt and make the crosshead boxes of 
bronze. An engineer had an engine with crank-pin 7^ 
inches and crosshead pin 7 inches in diameter. 

The crank-pin boxes would run without keying up for 
months, but the crosshead boxes would need keying twice 
per week. In the Mechanics' Fair at Boston, in 1883, 
there was on exhibition what was termed "hardened cop- 
per" that was claimed to be superior to any metal for 
bearings. It was not "hard" but it was treated in some 
manner so that it would file and work with tools some- 
thing like cast iron. The engineer got some of this and 
had some crosshead boxes made. These would go for a 
longer time without adjusting than the crank-pin. Evi- 
dently, the makers of this metal could not make people 
believe that copper would make good bearings and had 

149 



Bearings that Bind. 

to give up the business. None of it can be found now. 

It is a fact that pure copper is one of our best non-at- 
trition metals. 

One lubricant used in drawing brass and copper is 
made by boiling together tallow, hard soap and water, 
putting in water to make it of the proper consistency. 
This is better than oil for cutting brass and copper pipe. 

Soap is a fair lubricant and at one time was extensively 
used in packing axles on locomotives that heated. A dash 
of spirits of camphor sometimes has a good effect. 

Kerosene, when gummy oils are used, will clear a jour- 
nal, but not so quickly as potash or ammonia. 

The causes for hot journals are many. Of course, 
a tight journal will heat. A journal in a solid box, if it 
gets warm, will pretty surely get hot, as it will expand 
faster than the box ; the outside of the box not being hot 
will not expand and will cause the box to bind. The only 
place that there is any excuse for using solid boxes is 
on the parallel rods of a locomotive. 

With reciprocating motion a box too loose will heat 
from the pounding out of the oil. 

A bronze box is cause for apprehension. The name 
"bronze" covers a multitude of sins, and worse. A few 
are made of good material ; many are simply cheap brass 
with an occasional small percentage of tin. When they 
get hot they tear the journal and frequently ruin it. A 
great many of the white lining metals are as bad, so far 
as heating is concerned, as "bronze." They are made 
up of cheap material, lead being largely used. 

When a man offers cheap lining metal it must be made 
from cheap ingredients. Sometimes the best lining metal 
is ruined through improper treatment, and this is more 
liable to be the case with the better qualities than with 

ISO 



Causes of Heating. 

the cheaper. Tin melts at 440 degrees Fahr., and a metal 
made chiefly from tin should not be overheated. A good 
rule is that it is sufficiently hot when it will char a pine 
stick. It should always be covered with a flux when 
melting to preserve it from oxidation. Charcoal is often 
used for this purpose. 

Heating may be caused by all parts not being lubri- 
cated, there being no oil channels to spread the oil ; by 
hard metals made up in the shaft, like pieces of steel, or 
cast iron, or cinder, or any material that does not wear 
smoothly and evenly; by the casting not being properly 
cleaned and sand working out under the lining metal ; by 
the edges of the lining metal not having been trimmed off 
and the thin edges cracking off; by the work not being 
in line, or level and the load not distributed evenly; by 
the journal not being of sufficient size, there being more 
than 150 pounds pressure to the square inch. In some 
cases dirt may get in, and in many cases improper lubri- 
cants are used. Too tight a belt makes an excess of 
friction. 



151 



Corliss Engines. 



T T T 

This chapter will be to a large extent personal. For 
a number of years I had tried to get some one interested in 
putting on an extra eccentric but was unable to do so, and 
all Corliss engine builders of the time claimed that it was 
not necessary and would make a needless combination and 
expense. 

In 1872 I had added to my equipment a Corliss en- 
gine, 28 X 60, running at 52 revolutions. To this engine 
was attached a syphon condenser. At that time indicators 
were scarce, but I had a Richards. I was unable to get 
a card that suited me. If the attempt was made to get any 
compression the exhaust was late and would not show 
full vacuum before half stroke. I tried compression by 
giving the eccentric a large advance and by lengthening 
the exhaust connections. By doing this it was necessary 
to lengthen the steam connections. This made about 
three-eighths stroke the latest possible cut-off. As the en- 
gine was doing rolling mill work, some of the time it 
meant full stroke. The slowness of the exhaust also 
troubled me. It was learned after repeated trials that 
getting compression at the expense of release meant more 
coal burned, while the earher the release, the less coal 

152 



Corliss Indicator Diagrams. 

was required. It finally settled down to the diagram 
shown in Fig. 69, as the best that could be done and still 
have the engine run fairly quiet. I began to talk two ec- 
centrics for Corliss engines, but no one would listen to 
me, all interested parties claiming the extra one was not 
needed. I tried to induce those having new engines built 
to insist on it, but all were easily talked out of it. 

In 1883 I was in a position to say that the engine 
should be changed that way. In conversation one day 
with the superintendent of the engine works, he was told 
there was going to be another eccentric. Said the super- 
intendent, "We can build it for you," and it was arranged 




Fig. 69. Single eccentric diagram, 

that I should send the dimensions and a sketch of what 
was wanted and the engine builder would make it. It was 
made in 1884. 

For some reason ever3^one had the idea that the of- 
fice of a second eccentric was to give freedom to setting 
the exhaust valves and the principal thing was to get com- 
pression. I wanted to get early release and have the 
vacuum have effect the full length of the stroke ; also a 
longer range of cutting-off. 

With a Corliss engine it is evident that the valve must 
release at or before the full throw of the eccentric, so the 
steam eccentric was set at right angles to the crank, which 
would insure a range of cut-of¥ up to half stroke. Both 

153 



Wristplates. 

eccentrics were set at right angles to the crank, both 
wrist plates vertical, the steam valves with 1-16 inch lead 
and the exhaust with yg inch lead. The exhaust eccen- 
tric was then turned to about 30 degrees angular advance 
of the steam eccentric. 

I have always had the idea that one should never 
depart from the builder's design of an engine if pos- 




Fig. 70. Old Corliss Wristplate. 



sible ; that there should be no special parts, so that re- 
pairs could be quickly and cheaply made. The wrist 
plate originally was like Fig. 70. The new wrist plates 
were made one-half as thick, with the outline shown by 
dotted lines, and fitted to the same stud. The new rocker 
arm was the same as its mate, and all valve connections 

154 



More Corliss Cards. 




Fig. 71. Diagram from two eccentrics. 

were the same. After the new arrangement was started 
a diagram was Hke Fig. 71. It will be noticed on this 
that the cut-off is round. I wrote the builder, sending 
some cards, and inquired if there was any remedy. The 
builder suggested that the studs operating the steam 
valves be set i inch nearer the circumference of the wrist 
plate, which would give the valve more and quicker 
travel. This was done, and the precaution was taken 
to work the wrist full throw both ways to see that every- 
thing was clear, but when the steam was turned on and 
the engine was partly up to speed, the dash-pot rod pulled 
just out of the guide, and the result was a broken wrist 
plate. As everything was uniform with the old, the old 
single wrist plate was put back and attached to the steam 
eccentric set at right angles to the crank, and Fig. 72 
was the result. 




Fig. 72. Another card from one eccentric. 



Two Eccentric Corliss Engines. 

The round cut-off was not overcome by the longer 
and quicker travel to the valve, and I have observed 
since that, with a condensing engine, early release and 
compression, the cut-off will be round. 

There was another thing observed, and that was that 
the range during which the engine could cut off was ex- 
tended to three-quarters stroke. At first it did not seem 
possible, but it was reasoned that the release taking place 
at half stroke, and the piston being at its highest speed, 
it must travel the extra quarter stroke while the valve 
was closing. 

The first engine to which it was applied was speeded 
up two revolutions by the change, owing to the governor 
in its old position having a longer cut-off. It has largely 
been the custom on Corliss engines to build the governor 
with a travel of 4 inches. This was cut down to 2^. 

With two eccentrics set in the manner described so 
that steam can follow three-quarter stroke, and the gov- 
ernor travel reduced to 2^ inches, a Corliss engine is a 
powerful machine and the regulation is very close. 

The wrist plates should be as light and simple as 
possible. A few builders make small balance wheels for 
this purpose. It should be remembered that a wrist-plate 
must be stopped and started twice every revolution, and, 
when made heavy, brings a severe strain on the whole 
gearing from wrist plate to eccentric, and means hot 
eccentrics, shaky rods and a pound in every joint. 

Some wrist plates are built like Fig. y^, evidently 
with the idea that they can be finished all over in the 
lathe. 

Wrist plates like this are very hard to stop and start 
the other way, and with this type there will always be 
hot eccentrics. It is not necessary that wrist plates should 

156 



Setting Corliss Valves. 

be finished and many are made that are left plain castings. 

On the end of valves, on the opposite side of cylinder 
from wrist plates, is a mark showing the edge of the 
valve, and below on the seat are marks showing port 
openings. Fig. 74 shows these marks and my method of 
setting the wrist plates and valves before splining the 
valve stems for the little jim cranks. 

The usual method for setting Corliss valves with one 
eccentric, with engine on the center, is to give from 1-32 
to I- 16 inch lead for cylinders from 12 to 36 inches. 
With wrist plate on center, steam lap from 3-16 to ^ 
inch and exhaust lap from 1-32 to ^ inch. According to 




Fig. 73. Round wristplate. 

my plan with compound engines, the steam lead on the 
low-pressuure cylinder should be from ^ to ^ inch, 
depending on size of cylinder. 

With cylinders without steam jackets, the corner of 
steam line on indicator card should be a little rounding. 
This is caused by initial condensation. To bring this 

157 



Marks for Valve Setting. 

corner up square means excessive lead, more coal and 
more oil. With a steam jacket, this corner will be 
brought up square. 

Fig. 75 shows plan of wrist plates and my way of 
putting in the starting bars. By this method both bars 
can be taken in one hand and the engine handled the 
same as with a single wrist plate. Most builders put in 
round rods, and in such a manner that it is impossible 
to handle the engine by hand. 








Fig. 74. Valve setting marks. 

These bars are struck out in all sorts of directions 
but the right one. They are usually laid out by drafts- 
men or someone having no practical knowledge of 
engineering. 

When a Corliss engine, or any other four-valve en- 

158 



When Valves Make Trouble. 




Fig. 75. Both bars handled together. 



gine except piston valves, is running light so that the 
steam expands below the atmosphere on non-condensing 
single engines, the exhaust valves will lift and rattle. 
This is particularly noticeable when steam is shut off. 
Because of this, a very few engine builders have got into 
the practice of making the ends of the valves solid to pre- 
vent them lifting. Valves made in this manner are liable 
to give trouble when starting the engine. When a valve 
which is solid on the end, or a piston valve, or any valve 
that fits tight to case, has steam admitted, the valve will 
become heated before the surrounding case and will stick 
and cause something to break. This has caused lots of 
single pump mechanisms to break, especially when new. 
Where there are valves of this kind, care should be taken 
to heat everything thoroughly before attempting to start. 




Fig. 76. Not a good plan. 



How to Place an Engine on Centre. 

Another bad practice some builders have gotten into 
is to construct the valve mechanism in such a manner as 
to bring the jim cranks very nearly in the center at full 
throw of wrist plate — nearly as bad as Fig. 76. A very 
little shortening up on the connections means a wreck. 

To place engine on exact center, turn the crank just 
past the center and mark the cross-head and guide, as at 
A, Fig. yy. Also measure from the floor to side of wheel 
rim, say one foot, or two feet, and make a mark upon 
the wheel, as at B, then turn the crank the other way 
past the center to bring the mark on crosshead and guide 
and with the same distance from the floor as before make 
another mark on the wheel, as at C. Now make a per- 
manent mark D on the wheel just half way between the 
two marks, and this mark, brought to same distance from 
the floor, puts the engine exactly on the center, and the 
mark being permanent can be used at any future time. 
Mark for the other center in the same manner. 

Should it become necessary to alter the steam con- 
nections between wrist plate and jim crank, be careful 
to see that the dash-pot rod is also adjusted properly, so 
that it will not be pushed to the bottom or lifted so high 
it will not hook on. 

Next give attention to the reach rods from governor, 
to see that the valve cuts of¥ properly and that the stop 
motion has not been put out of service. 

An engineer had occasion to examine five engineers 
for a chief engineer's position for an 8,000 horse-power 
station, and when the question was asked, ''When changes 
have been made in the steam connections, what changes 
should be looked after in the governor?" not one of them 
could think of a thing, although, if a governor belt should 
break, it means a runaway. 

161 



An Answer to Criticism. 

Cards were sent to the builder, and the superin- 
tendent showed them to the head draftsman, who in- 
quired why they had not done it before. "Oh," said the 
superintendent, ''Crane has been after us to build this 
for the last five years." Being asked why he had not 
done it he replied, "Because we don't want outsiders to 
come here and show us how to build engines." 

The new arrangement cost $263. The amount of 
coal burned two months before it was applied and for 
two months afterward showed a saving in fuel of $500 
per year. 

This engine was not built at the Corliss works, but 
at the time there was at this place a 30 x 60 engine built 
at the Corliss shop, and the Corliss company was asked 
for a price for putting on an extra eccentric, and the 
reply was, "We will not do it for any price. We do not 
want our engines run that way." 

The extra eccentric went on, nevertheless, and a few 
years afterward I went to the Corliss works and had a 
compound built just as I wanted it — two eccentrics 
and all. 

After about 1892 any one could get two eccentrics 
who asked for them, and by 1897 most Corliss builders 
claimed they had built them for years. 

I have been amused at seeing Corliss engines fitted 
with two eccentrics and both wrist plates working in uni- 
son. There are many engines running this way that 
would do just as good service with one plate. 

Criticism has been made of my method of setting 
the valves. With 1-16 inch lead on the steam valves and 
the large lead on the exhaust, it is reasoned that for a 
short time steam will blow through when the engine is 
on the center, but this does not occur after the engine is 
up to speed and the cut-ofif in operation. 

162 



Selecting an Engine. 

With some types of Corliss exhaust valves there will 
be pounding- caused by the valve not having the springs 
put in correctly and the valve dropping a little during the 
exhaust to be forced against the seat suddenly by the 
entering steam. 

Most automatic cut-off engines have a rattling in the 
exhaust valves when the engine is working light and 
running non-condensing caused by the steam in the cyl- 
inder expanding below the atmosphere, thus lifting the 
exhaust valves from their seats. With junk ring fitting 
the entire lower half of cylinder there are those who will 
contend that this will add to the friction, arguing that 
the pressure on top of the ring produces a pressure on 
every square inch of bottom. 

This question is the same as that of the slide valve, 
whether the pressure is over the total face or over the 
ports only. No extra coal was burned with this form 
of junk ring. 

When selecting an engine, some people are governed 
more by scruples than by conditions. There are many 
who are strictly Corliss men and can listen to nothing 
but a Corliss engine under any and all circumstances 
where there is sufficient power to be used that requires 
even the smallest sizes of this engine. There are others 
who will listen to nothing but high speed and direct con- 
necting to individual shafts or to generators. When short 
stroke and high rotative speeds came out the claim was 
made that they used steam faster, and as a result hotter ; 
there would be less condensation; the engine could be 
directly coupled to the engine shaft, thus doing away 
with a big wheel, jack shaft and belts and much power 
could be saved in that way. 

One large manufacturing company put in two of these 

163 



What Engine to Buy. 

engines, each coupled to a main Hne of shafting. They 
advertised extensively their plans and gave glowing ac- 
counts of the results after starting. After a time they 
began to count the cost, and it did not look so flattering. 
It would not do to make the change to a Corliss engine 
right away, in view of all they had said, so they kept very 
quiet for a long time and then put in a Corliss. For their 
work they did a wise thing finally, and should have done 
it in the first place. Even with this in view there are 
many cases where a Corliss is prohibitive. 

A person just starting a small business has sufficient 
money to buy a high-speed engine and small building to 
put it in. His business pays so that it is enlarged, and 
he finally gets a Corliss. He did not have sufficient capi- 
tal in the first place to pay for the Corliss, with the large 
building required for the engine, belt, pulleys, etc. There 
are many cases in large, well-established concerns that 
have use for power, where they have room for a high- 
•speed engine and where the extra amount of coal used 
would not warrant the extensive changes in the buildings 
and grounds necessary for the installing of a Corliss. In 
many new buildings the same conditions exist. Where a 
small portion of the works run overtime a high-speed en- 
gine is a necessity, and, while using more coal per horse- 
power when the main engine is loaded, will drive the 
small amount of work required with less coal than the 
large engine would require. 

Many business concerns have got a good start with a 
high-speed engine that could not have made a beginning 
had they been obliged to put in its bigger brother at the 
start. 

It is more necessary, however, to have the high-speed 
engine loaded to about its capacity than for a Corliss. A 

164 



Power of an Engine. 

Corliss engine changes neither its lead nor compression 
with change of load. While doing work it has the resist- 
ance on the exhaust side to overcome, and this resistance 
will be the same under a light as under a heavy load. 
With a non-condensing engine it would appear something 
like this : 

Assuming an engine to have i6o square inches area and 
500 feet piston speed per minute, it will give 80 horse- 
power with 33 pounds mean effective pressure. An en- 
gine with the same mean effective pressure will require 
50 square inches of piston and the same piston speed to do 
25 horse-power. Adding back pressure to the latter case, 

49X50X500 

we have 49 pounds total pressure, and =34 

33000 
horse-power. 

Should the larger engine be only loaded to 25 horse- 
power it would require but 10 pounds mean effective 
pressure, and adding the 16 pounds back pressure we have 
26X160X500 

=63 H. P., 

33000 

showing that the small engine to overcome all resistance 
would require coal for 34 horse-power, while the larger 
engine doing the same work would require coal for 63 
horse-power. 

Should a condenser be used these results would be 
materially changed, but there would still be the greater 
amount of condensation in the larger cylinder. 

When we have a high-speed engine with single valve 
and shaft governor we have the above exaggerated by the 
compression. When a shaft governor is used, the com- 
pression is increased with every reduction in the point of 
cutting off, so that with light load the piston not only 

165 



Highest Possible Economy. 

has to displace the resistance that falls to the lot of the 
four-valve engine, but from half stroke must push this 
resistance up to nearly boiler pressure in compression. 

It is estimated that the highest economy that is pos- 
sible for an engine to reach is i horse-power with i pound 
of coal. The engine that requires or that receives high 
compression will not be the one to attain it. 



t66 



Valves. 



Among the more prominent valves formerly used 
were the D slide valve and the single poppet valve. After 
pressures were increased the latter gave way to the double 
poppet shown in Fig. 78. This is balanced valve except 




Fig. 78. Double poppet valve. 

one end must be made sufficiently small to pass entire 
through the port of the other. 

This is a difficult valve to make tight. In the first 
place, the seat frames are of iron and the valves brass and 
the expansion is different, and this difference increases 

167 



Slide Valves. 

with the increase of pressure. In the second place, these 
valves must be ground to their seats when cold. It is 
rare that the same amount of material will be put on each 
seat. A single poppet valve can be made tight, but it 
would require heavy machinery to open it. 

The slide valve, Fig. 79, can be made tight, and if 
made so that the valve will always wipe clear over the 
seat will remain tight for years. Some of these valves 
and ports are very crudely designed. 

At one time lead was supposed to be necessary to 




VTZ^T^ 



"TZ/^y 



Fig. 79. A typical slide valve. 

keep an engine from pounding. After the advent of the 
high-speed engine, compression was deemed the thing. 
With some builds of engines, both are thought necessary 
by the builders with the result that we have some pretty 
poor results, owing to the design of the valve. Not very 
intelligent work can be done in valve setting without an 
indicator, but either with or without an indicator a very 
clear idea can be got by taking out the valve. Take two 
parallel strips of pine and on one mark the dimensions of 
the valve and opening for the exhaust ; on the other, the 
seat with ports, and put them together as shown in Fig. 80. 
Then find the travel of the valve and move the top stick 

168 



Laying Out a Valve. 

over the bottom corresponding with the valve travel. The 
lead, both steam and exhaust, can be plainly seen as well 
as all the movements of the valve. Builders who have the 
idea that imperfections in the build and alignment of the 
engine resulting in a noisy engine can be overcome by 
compression, are apt to put an inside lap as shown by the 
dotted portion at A, Fig. 79. This, with a fair clearance, 
will make excessive compression and a late exhaust, both 
very expensive. An indicator card will tell how much of 
this should be taken out. 

Lead will cause an engine to pound. Steam pressure 




^e^i^ 



Fig. 80. Wooden valve for experimenting. 

admitted to the cylinder raises the pressure suddenly and 
takes up the lost motion too quickly. An engine properly 
built, and not run at too high a rotative speed, will run 
smoothly with a moderate amount of compression. To 
attempt to get smooth running with an extra amount of 
compression or of lead means more oil, more coal and 
more repairs. 

The longer the ports the more lead is required, as it 
takes time for steam to move. With small-sized engines 
about I -16 of an inch lead for steam and y% for exhaust 
is a fair guess. When setting an eccentric a rule that 
can be easily remembered is : It shoukl be set far enough 
ahead of a right angle to the crank to allow for the lap 
and lead of the valve. When it becomes necessary to run 

169 



Setting the Eccentrics. 

the engine the other way this rule should not be forgotten. 
The eccentric would be turned either greater or less than 
half way, as indicated by the points on the shaft of Fig. 
8i. 

An engineer was at one time called upon to look at 
the governor of a small engine. The owner said that the 
engine had run all right until of late, when he could not 
get speed. The governor was gone over carefully and 




Fig. 8i. Setting eccentric to reverse engine. 



nothing was found wrong. The owner was asked if any- 
thing had been done to the engine, and received a reply 
that there had not. 

The governor pulley was taken off, so as to get at the 
eccentric, and while looking this over the owner volun- 
teered the information that he had moved the engine from 
an old location, had had a piper who wrote "M. E." after 
his name to do the changing, piping, etc., and the piper 
had an engineer come to set the eccentric. ''Yes," said 
the engineer, who by this time had the steam-chest cover 

170 



The Gridiron Valve. 

off, "and he turned the eccentric just half-way around." 
The eccentric was then set, and, by the way, there were 
marks on the shaft to set it to run the engine either way, 
and the governor gave no more trouble. Turning the 
eccentric half-way had delayed the admission of steam 
about one-third of the stroke ; also delayed the exhaust. 

There are many modifications of the slide valve. In 
some cases there are ports through the valve and a loose 
valve riding on top for a cut-off. In some cases there 
are two or more steam ports and a corresponding number 
of ports through the valve, making what is termed a 
"gridiron" valve. As you add a port you of course add 
to the surface exposed to the steam and add to the skin 
friction, so that for the same area there will not be the 
same amount of steam passing through at the same time. 
Should you try to lessen this and make tne valve thin, if a 
large one, it will warp under heat ana pressure. Some 
builders try to overcome this by facmg off the seat and 
valve when hot. 

A man about to buy an engine was solicited to buy 
an engine with a gridiron valve. While employing an 
engineer he took to investigating the subject personally. 
He paid four visits to a place where they had a very large 
engine with this type of valve, and on three of his visits 
they were facing off the valves. 

This springing of the valve occurs only in the larger 
sizes. As ports are added, the travel of the valve is 
reduced so that the gridiron valve becomes a neat and a 
necessary design for a releasing valve under moderately 
high speeds. There are a number of nicely designed bal- 
anced slide valves which have the good quality of remain- 
ing tight for a long time and requiring much less power 
than the D valve. 

171 



High Speed Engines. 

The poppet valve is very little used in mill, factory 
or electric work. Where met with they are operated by 
cams. To set the valves, the governor is raised to its 
highest position and blocked. The cams are brought 
around to the valve stems ; if more cams than one, be 
sure and get the right cam to the right stem. Set the 
valve stem at the proper length so that as the cam passes 
it, it will touch but not open the valve. Then let the gov- 
ernor down, place the engine on the center and bring the 
cam into position to open the valve for the lead required. 
Mention has been made of a small amount of com- 
pression necessary for smooth running of a well-built, 
moderate-speed engine. When it comes to a high-speed 
engine, these calculations are all upset. A high-speed 
engine requires nice design, nice workmanship and perfec- 
tion in balancing. With a slow or moderate-speed engine, 
the pressure on the pin and main journal will be direct, as 
the push or pull comes from the piston. On a high-speed 
engine, the weight of the working parts and relative speed 
may be so great as to change the thrust on the opposite 
side. This tendency is increased with the increase of the 
weight of the working parts and also with light loads. It 
also increases as the square of the number of revolutions. 

With a piston valve in engine or pump, one should be 
careful when starting up cold if the valve is nearly new, 
or if it has been recently adjusted, as the valve, when 
steam is admitted, will heat up much faster than the steam 
chest and will expand so as to be tight and liable to break 
something. 

The valves for engines therefore are : the D slide valve, 
with its modification, the gridiron valve ; the poppet 
valve, the piston valve, shown in Fig. 43 ; the balanced 
slide valve, shown in Fig. 82, and the Corliss valve. 

172 



Balanced Valves. 



"Imitation is the sincerest flattery," therefore the valve 
most imitated is that most desired by the public. The 
slide, because of the size necessary, is limited to small and 
medium sized engines where high-pressure steam is used. 
It is possible to use it on the low-pressure cylinders of 
compound engines where the heat and pressure are not 
great. 

The poppet valve has largely gone out of use, but, like 
baggy trousers, may occasionally come in fashion. 

The piston valve, because of its small friction, simplic- 
ity and cheapness, is very attractive and has considerable 
demand. Even those that own up to its liability to leak 




Fig. 82. Balanced slide valve. 

will use it on high-pressure cylinders of compound en- 
gines, and by using a tight valve on the low-pressure cyl- 
inder get, in many cases, very good results. 

Steam will blow through stronger into a vacuum than 
into the atmosphere. George was trying to reduce the 
coal bill at an electric station where they ran the day load 
with a single cylinder, piston valve engine. He connected 
the exhaust to the condenser, and immediately the coal 
account increased. He had a new valve and complete new 
chest put on, and, while there was some improvement, it 
still required more coal with the condenser. When ex- 
hausting into the condenser the steam could be plainly 
heard rushing by the valve. 

173 



Runaway Engines. 

The balanced slide valve requires skill and time to 
make a tight fit, but can be made tight and durable. With 
from 15 to 20 per cent of the pressure to hold the valve 
in place it is a neat arrangement and vies with piston 
valve in attractiveness with the advantage of keeping 
tight. They are easily handled by a shaft governor and 
are largely used in medium and high-speed engines, and 
have a large sale. When an engine with shaft governor 
is attached to a condenser it should be carefully watched 
when there is no load. A shaft governor is supposed to 
govern the admission of steam from no steam admitted 
up to three-quarter stroke. With a single valve, with 
lead, compression, exhaust and the variable cut-off all to 
look out for, requires nice calculation, and in many cases 
the governor has not sufficient range to entirely prevent 
the admission of steam with no load, and with a vacuum 
the chances are in favor of a runaway engine. An M. E. 
attached a condenser to an engine with a shaft gover- 
nor, and, knowing what he had to expect, explained to the 
engineer the probability of excessive speed at midnight, 
when the street lights were thrown off, and cautioned him 
to jump for his throttle as soon as he threw the switch. 
The M. E. stood close by the engine so as to be sure to 
prevent trouble. He, however, wanted the engineer to 
do the work and see what he had to deal with. He had to 
close down to save the engine and then let the engineer 
try and regulate it. The patrons that were using the 
lights at that time must have wondered a little. 

He finally took hold of the throttle, closed it down and 
then turned it slowly up to the point where the lights were 
all right and then put a mark on top of wheel of valve. 
He then threw on the street lights and opened the throttle, 
-counting the number of turns. The switch was then 

174 



A Tandem Compound. 

thrown out, the valve closed that number of turns and, 
leaving the wheel with mark on top, brought the speed 
down, or rather regulated the amount of steam necessary 
for the proper speed, so that the governor could handle 
it without the lights fluctuating. This would not do for a 
railroad load. 

An M. E. had a case with a tandem compound engine, 
piston valves, shaft governor, that was not safe with a 
condenser, and the builders had a man at work a month 
before he had the valves and governor so that it would 
control the engine with light load with a condenser. The 
builder sent in a bill for $600, and insisted on its being 
paid or would bring. suit. To avoid a law-suit the M. E. 
advised the payment of the bill and that not another dol- 
lar's worth of goods be ordered from the builders. 

So far as the Corliss valve is concerned, there are many 
■that do not like to admit they are imitators and claim to 
have something just as good or better. The horse-power 
of the other types are small as compared with the Corliss 
type. The Corliss type with disengaging valve gear is 
limited in rotative speed. There are builders that put in 
double-ported valves with steam closed dash-pots that 
will get 150 revolutions. The objection (there seems to 
be but one) to the Corliss engine is the cost of the mech- 
anism for operating the valves, which makes the first cost 
of the engine large ; also the longer stroke must always 
make this engine more expensive in first cost than the 
single-valve engines, but not more so than those imita- 
tions of the Corliss idea of using four valves at the ends 
of the cylinder. The valve gear should not be run over 
125 revolutions. 



175 



Air Pumps and Condensers. 

When James Watt separated the condenser from 
the cyhnder of the steam engine, he built his air pump 



CONNECTION FOR AIR PUMP TRUNK 



[\~ 




tr 




Fig. 83. 

similar to Fig. 83. There has been some refinement put 
on this, but in the main it is the best plan for an air pump 
ever designed. 

Mr. Corliss added something to it of value. He put 
in iron rods A A, with set-screws through cover, to hold 

176 



Air Pump Packing. 

down the top valve plate. When it is necessary to lift 
this cover the set-screws can be loosened and the rods 
taken out. He then pnt in two holes through this plate, 
which are closed with plugs when the pump is in , 
operation. 

When the plate is to be lifted, the pump is put at its 
lowest position, these plugs taken out and bolts with an 
engagement, threaded near the head, shown at B. This 
bolt reaches to the plunger, and by raising the pump to 
its position the top plate is raised and access had to the 
plunger. 

Mr. Corliss also made an arrangement for driving 
the pump — that is, the connection to the bottom of the 
trunk of a long strap with a rod between the top and 
bottom brasses, so that wiien the key. is driven at the top, 
both top and bottom brasses are tightened alike. 

The usual method for packing the plungers was with 
hemp, which would last but a short time. A man got a 
patent for a packing made from maple blocks, the joints 
rabbeted, and this packing made double. This packing 
was held against the cylinder by two coils of rubber hose 
made without canvas, Fig. 84. He sold his patent to Mr. 
Corliss, and it was the only patent Mr. Corliss ever 
bought. An engineer had one of these pumps, 26-inch 
cylinder, in use six years, and thinking the packing must 
be used up, he procured a new set to replace the old ; but 
upon taking the old out he found it in perfect condition, 
and replaced it. 

These pumps, as generally run, have a pound whei 
the water on top of the plunger strikes the valve plate. 
One of Mr. Harris's engineers learned to put in a ^- 
inch pipe with globe valve, as shown at C, and by open- 
ing this valve about one-eighth of a turn, just sufficient 

177 



A Patent Corliss Bought. 

to let in air enough to cushion the water and open the 
valves before the water struck them, all pounding from 
the above cause would be prevented. 

This is sure on all properly designed pumps, but as 
these pumps are lined with bronze, and all the parts of 
bronze are very expensive, there is too often a tempta- 
tion to make them too small. When too small, this air 
cushion is of no avail, and will reduce the vacuum. 




Fig. 84. Air pump packing that Corliss bought. 

An air pump cylinder should be of sufficient capacity 
so that the water to be removed should not fill over 35 
per cent., leaving the rest for air and vapor, which at 
that pressure require a large space. 

When boiler pressures were low, condensers were a 
necessity, but as pressures increased many steam users 
got along without them, and because of their expense, 
the percentage of condensing engines was small. 

About the year 1870 a man by name of Ransom 
invented a condenser, a cross-section of which is shown 

178 



The First Syphon Condenser. 



in Fig. 85. This was the first syphon condenser. 

At the top of the condenser was a plate, perforated 




Fig. 85. The first syphon condenser — Ransom's. 

except over the end of the exhaust pipe. 

The injection pipe reached above the perforated 

179 



Trouble with early Condensers. 

plate. The discharge pipe was of the same size as the 
exhaust and filled with i-inch pipes, as shown. These 
pipes, near the top, had branches through which the 
water entered, and as the water passed down the pipes 
it drew in air and vapor at the top. Of course this con- 
denser must be 34 feet above the hot well. 

A great many of these condensers were put in, as 
they were inexpensive and had nothing about them to 
need repairs, except a cold water pump. 

They would produce from 24 to 27 inches of vacuum, 
and many of them did good work; but there being no 
way of telling the height of water in them, and as it was 
necessary to have the water over the top of the discharge 
pipe to get the best vacuum, many an engineer pumped 
the water until it went over the top of the exhaust pipe, 
and a wreck followed. There were so many of these 
wrecks that this condenser was short lived. 

About the time these condensers were wrecking 
engines and steam users had awaked to the fact that about 
25 per cent, of fuel could be saved with a good con- 
denser, Mr. Henry W. Bulkley came out with his syphon- 
injector condenser, his patent being for a syphon and 
injector combined when applied to a condenser. 

This condenser is shown in Fig. 86. If we let water 
flow from the end of a pipe, it will take a tapered form. 
These condensers are made in that form. They are 
finished inside so as to give a smooth flow. There is 
a cone having a small annular space at the end, 
this annular space being of the right capacity to let a 
suflicient amount of water through without pressure, and 
also the throat at the bottom is of the same capacity. 

The flange at "top of condenser is placed 34 feet above 
the hot well, and the hot well should be of suflicient size 

180 



Bulkley's Condenser. 

to hold the water at all times over the lower end of the 
pipe. 

Accidents with this condenser can occur : By allow- 
ing the lower end of the discharge pipe to become uncov- 




Fig. 86. Bulkley's syphon condenser. 

ered and air bubbles to enter, lifting the water after 
the manner of the air lift in wells ; by putting on a heavy 
pressure of water and forcing more through the end of 

i8i 



Hot Well Capacity. 

the cone than will readily pass out of the throat ; by put- 
ting on sufficient pressure to collapse the cone ; by the 
bursting of a tube in a heater in the exhaust pipe. 

There is no excuse for any of these mishaps to occur. 

The hot well should be double the capacity of the 
down, or tail pipe, and no water other than the feed 
should be taken from it. 

If necessary to use water from the hot well for 
other purposes, there should be a second well for that 
purpose. 

An important thing is to have a good strainer over 
the suction pipe, or there will be the annoyance of taking 
out the cone to remove obstructions. The objection to 
this condenser is that it requires a constant water supply 
to fill the throat regardless of the load. The vacuum 
produced with not over 300 feet elevation above sea level 
is 28 inches by mercury gage. 

One of these condensers was elevated 20 feet above 
the water supply, and which, after starting, would draw 
its own water. In one case a large hole wore through 
a heater coil, allowing the water to flow direct into the 
exhaust without giving trouble. This went on for some 
time and was finally discovered by seeing a large stream 
of water running out of the drain pipe while the engine 
was standing. 

There have been some modifications of this con- 
denser. Because of the trouble with the cone stopping 
up, one builder made them with adjustable cones, so that 
more or less water could be let through and also the cone 
could be lifted to let out any obstructions. A condenser 
of this description will not produce a high vacuum. 

The Worthington Pump Company, in 1900, com- 
menced building a condenser similar to the Bulkley, which 

182 



Worthington's Condenser. 

is shown in Fig. 87. This does not have the cone, and 
if it depended on the condenser alone, would not produce 
a high vacuum. They put in a pipe in the center of the 
condenser which leads through a cooler placed in the in- 



HAND WHEEL 



AIR COOLER 




OPENING TO TAIL PIPE 

Fig. 87. Worthington's syphon condenser. 



jection pipe and then to a dry vacuum pipe. The ob- 
ject is to pump any air not taken out by the water through 
this dry vacuum pump. The claim is made that a less 
amount of water is required than with the Bulkley. 

The syphon condenser showed steam users that there 

183 



Conover's Plan. 

was about 25 per cent, saved by the use of condensers. 
A demand arose for condensing apparatus, and nearly 
every pump builder commenced building them in con- 
nection with their horizontal pumps. Some of them did 
very good work, but a horizontal pump is not the better 
plan for an air pump. 

In the first place, horizontal direct-acting pumps 
sometimes stop. They are great consumers of steam. 
A large horizontal water cylinder has a way of collecting 
grit in the packing and cutting the lining out. A vertical 
pump as built by Watt is not so liable to do this. 

A duplex pump is an improper pump to use, as it is 
very liable to take short strokes, which makes large clear- 
ance, and is also liable for a time to make so short strokes 
that the engine cylinder becomes filled with water. 

Mr. E. K. Conover, seeing the large amount of steam 
used for the condenser, took up the Watt air pump and 
attached it to a special compound engine with Corliss 
valves and adjustable cut-ofT. This made an exceedingly 
economical independent condenser and very compact. 
As it is driven by an engine with crank and eccentric it 
does not stop when one is not watching. 

If sufficiently large for the work it will maintain the 
high vacuum of this type of air pump, and as it is ver- 
tical, there is very little danger from cut cylinders. It 
cannot be built as cheaply as the horizontal type. 

Since Mr. Conoyer showed such excellent results, 
other builders have adopted the practice of building the 
larger sizes of air pumps vertical, and with compound 
engines, so that vertical pumps have become universal. 

The important thing to look after in a condensing 
plant is absolute tightness. A small leak of cold air ad- 
mitted to the exhaust and becoming heated, takes up a 

184 



Hot Well Temperature. 

great deal of room. Care, therefore, should be taken to 
have all joints in the exhaust and all rods and stems as 
nearly tight as possible. 

If only a partial vacuum can be obtained and the 
pointer on the vacuum gage fluctuates, it is a pretty sure 
sign of an air leak. An excellent way for stopping air 
leaks is to get as high a vacuum as possible and then 
paint the whole exhaust system, carefully watching the 
whole surface to see if any place is found where the paint 
is drawn in. If the hole is not too large, constant paint- 
ing will finally stop it. After the whole surface has been 
gone over carefully, test the exhaust relief valve. The 
final test is to stop up the outlet from condenser, fasten 
down the relief valve and turn on steam until 15 or 20 
pounds pressure shows. This test should not be tried un- 
less absolutely necessary, as it expands everything, and 
of itself is liable to induce leaks. 

The water in the hot well is sufficiently cool if 100 
degrees Fahr. It may be no degrees and with a good 
condenser get 26 inches. 90 degrees for 28^ inches. 

With any engine a vacuum will rlemove the atmos- 
pheric resistance and will show economy, except with 
leaky valves or piston. In such a case the steam will 
leak faster into a vacuum than into the air, and a con- 
denser may show a loss. 

A condenser, however, shows best with a full loaded 
engine. 

When the Ransom condenser came out, a manu- 
facturer put one on a 24-inch cylinder. 

The addition of the vacuum showed such a saving 
that he reasoned that if he had a larger cylinder the va- 
cuum would do more work and he would get still better 
results, so he took off the 24-inch and put on a 30-inch, 

185 



Water for Jet Condenser. 

with the result that he consumed more fuel. 

His 24-inch cylinder showed a diagram card like 
the full lines in Fig. 88, while the 30-inch showed one like 
the dotted lines. The work done by the vacuum was no 
more with the larger cylinder, because of the earlier cut- 
off, while the cylinder condensation was largely increased. 

A 22 X 42-inch cylinder and 75 pounds of steam with 
26 inches vacuum showed much better results than a 38 x 
48-inch with 8 pounds of steam and the same vacuum 
doing the same work. 

For determining the amount of water for a jet con- 
denser, the usual approximate rule is 20 times the amount 
of water that is used to generate the steam. 




Fig, 88. 

One rule to estimate the amount is: Divide 1,000 
by the difference between 100 degrees and the injection 
water ; multiply the weight of steam used per hour by the 
quotient, and the result will be the weight of water 
required. 

Because of the amount of water required for a con- 
denser there are many places where they could not be 
used. About 1891 H. R. Worthington came out with a 
cooling tower, shown in Fig. 89. This consists of a steel 

186 



Cooling Tower. 



shell, open at the top and supported on a suitable founda- 
tion. On one side of the shell is a fan to force a current 
of air through the tower. The filling consists of earthen 




HOT WATER 

■< — m- 



:OLD WATER 



Fig. 89. 



SUCTION TANK 

Worthington cooling tower. 



tiling set on end. The water from condenser is carried 
by pipe to top of tower and distributed by spraying over 
the ends of the top set of tile, and the water is spread 

187 



Action of Cooling Tower. 

evenly and in a thin sheet over the outside and inside 
of the tiles, and is met by the air from the fan. When 
die writer was first shown one of these, and having some 
knowledge of the power required to move large bodies 
of air, he inquired why they did not put a stack on top 
and save the power required to drive the fan. This has 
later been done. 

Later Mr. Barnard invented a tower that operates 
with neither fan nor stack, although it will do more work 
if encased and used as the Worthington. This tower 
consists of mats made from wire cloth and hung in a ver- 
tical position, over the tops of which the water from the 
condenser is distributed. As the water flows down the 
mats it turns in and through the interstices and is thor- 
oughly broken up and exposed to the action of the air, 
and, its progress being so slow, a long time is given the 
air for contact with it. It is open on all sides to the air; 
and, to get the best results as a fanless and stackless 
tower, it should be placed in an exposed position where 
the wind has free access from all sides. 

The action of all these towers is the same — the con- 
tact of air and evaporation. The latter is the most impor- 
tant, as the more rapidly the moist air can be driven 
away the greater will be the evaporation with a conse- 
quent reduction of temperature. Other fanless towers 
have been built of wood with excellent results. 

Connected with the cooling tower in many cases, but 
more often in marine work, is the surface condenser, one 
form of which is shown in Fig. 90. The circulating water 
passes throug'h the tubes, and the exhaust steam, com- 
ing in contact with the outside of the tubes, is condensed 
and removed by the air pump. The air pump, in this 
case, can be smaller than when all water must be handled 



Surface Condenser. 



by it, and the condensed steam, free from all impurities 
but oil, can be returned to the boilers. The oil question 
with large horizontal engines is a serious drawback. 



anOH QNVH 




anOH QNVH 






The low-pressure cylinders of compound engines of 
the horizontal type require large quantities of com- 
pounded cylinder oil, the worst thing that can be used for 

189 



Using Surface Condenser. 

a boiler. In some cases it is absolutely impossible to use 
the water from condensation. 

In the first place, there should be a good oil separator 
put in the exhaust just as it enters the condensers. This 
will separate all the water and oil in the form of liquid, 
but the larger part of the oil has been vaporized, and 
the animal part has become an emulsion in the steam and 
becomes a portion of the condensed steam. It is at this 
point that the great trouble arises in separation. 

Salt, hay, excelsior, sponges and various absorbents 
have been tried. Should sponges be tried, soak them in 
oil and squeeze them dry. They will then reject water 
and take up oil. About the best plan is a tank like Fig. 91. 
This consists of a series of partitions whereby the water 
goes first under, then over, then vmder, etc., until it comes 
to the opposite end, when it is taken out by a pipe, as 
shown. During all the movement of the water through 
the tank the oil has every facility to come to the top and 
stay there. The important thing is that the tank be 
large and the passage of the water very slow. It is still 
better if the water can be carried a long distance through 
a large pipe before coming to the tank and frequently a 
second tank is necessary. 

It is advisable to build a large tank, as large as one 
can afford, but for 1,000 H. P. capacity not less than 15' 
square and 12' deep, let the water enter at the top and 
pass to feed pump from bottom. 

When used together, a cooling tower should cool 
the water below the temperature of the surrounding air 
and the surface condenser should cool the condensed 
water to not above 115 degrees. It has been claimed that 
one foot area of tube surface would cool 10 to 12 pounds 
of steam, but experience has shown that with water from 

190 



Getting the Oil Out. 

tower at 98 degrees one could not count on over 6 pounds 
of water from one foot of tube area. 

These condensers are necessary only with bad waters, 
and with bad water and high temperature in the con- 
denser, the tubes get scaled quickly. In one case a firm 
had such bad water and the condensing apparatus was 
so small for the work that the temperature of the water 
as it went to the tower was so high that the inside of the 
pipe, valve disc and seats were covered with scale. 

Where water is scarce, one reason for putting in a 
cooling tower has been the .idea that most of the water 
required for the boilers could be saved, but the evapora- 



/ TO PUMP 



=I7 



Fig. 91. A good plan for a tank. 

tion from the tower amounts to nearly as much as the 
exhaust from a non-condensing engine. 

The idea that some people have as to the nature of 
a vacuum is surprising. Many consider it a source of 
power, whereas there is no power in it. It is simply a 
space devoid of power or resistance. It removes all re- 
sistance from the exhaust side of the piston and allows a 
pressure that equals the pressure of the atmosphere to do 
mechanical work. 

An engineer came across an article that stated that 
at the dock trial of a steamship, to the engines of which 
was attached an independent condenser, the valves and 
pistons of the engines were so tight, and the engines 



191 



About Vacuum. 

throughout were so perfect, that when the steam was 
shut off the engines continued to run from the vacuum 
produced by the independent condenser, and that the 
vacuum had to be broken before the engines could be 
stopped. 

The engineer wrote an article saying that it did not 
show perfection ; that it simply showed that the throttle 
leaked. 

This was resented by the writer of the article, and it 
started a discussion that was taken up by the various 
mechanical papers, that lasted over a year, and it was 
surprising the number of engineers who actually believed 
that with an independent condenser a marine engine 
could turn a propeller in the water indefinitely without 
any steam being admitted to the cylinders. 

He had an engine with steam cylinder, 30 x 60 
inches, with tight piston, valves and throttle valve, to 
which was connected an air pump, 26 x 12 inches. He 
reasoned that as the steam piston was larger and ran 
at a higher speed, it must produce a better vacuum on the 
steam side of the piston when the steam was shut off 
tight, than the smaller and slower-moving air pump, so 
he took a card under those conditions. The vacuum on 
the exhaust side of piston was 2'j inches, and on the 
opposite or steam side was 28^ inches. This any one 
can verify if he has an engine perfectly tight, including 
the throttle. 

Some men have an idea that the vacuum can lift 
water out of a condenser into the cylinder. A vacuum 
can do no work, not even lift water. Take a gage glass, 
plug one end tight, fill the glass to within 2 inches of 
the top with water and produce a vacuum at the top, 
and it will be seen that the water cannot be moved. 

192 



Work of a Vacuum. 

Admit a little air at the bottom and the water will be 
raised all right. 

Not until water can be raised out of a glass tube 
plugged tight at the bottom will it ever be possible to 
raise water out of a condenser into an engine cylinder, 
unless air be admitted from the outside. The condenser 
may be flooded and flow back, but never raised. 

The writer was in the oflice of a large engineering 
firm, and there heard the remark so often made, ''When 
steam is shut off the engine is changed into an air pump." 

It seems strange what a large number of engineers 
believe this. When steam is shut off the engine is not 
changed into an air pump. The exhaust valve on exhaust 
end is open to the vacuum on a condensing engine, and 
the exhaust valve on the other end is closed. Cards taken 
from an engine with tight throttle, piston and valves, 
showed about one inch better vacuum on the steam side 
of the piston than on the exhaust side, but this was im- 
mediately lost as soon as the exhaust on that end com- 
menced to open. 

An engine can only become an air pump when the 
valves are reversed. When the engine is driven from 
some other source, or by the momentum of the wheel, 
and the valves reversed, the engine will be changed into 
a pump. 

This engineer also made the other remark we hear 
so frequently, "When the engine is changed into a pump 
it will 'suck' water out of the condenser." 

This shows what confused ideas many men get about 
the nature of a vacuum. A vacuum is a space that is 
inert. It has no force or energy of any kind. 

We see a non-condensing engine attached to a con- 
denser and noting how much easier it runs it naturally 

193 



An Example. 

seems that the vacuum has done lots of work. We see 
steam shut off from an engine with the exhaust open to 
the atmosphere and note that the engine stops in one 
minute. We then attach the exhaust to a condenser with 
a high vacuum and note that when steam is shut off 
the engine may run five or ten minutes, and it appears 
as though the vacuum was doing a whole lot of work 
in that engine. 

Suppose a boy is pushing a cart and is applying a 
force of 30 pounds, but a boy in front of him is holding 
back with a force of 15 pounds, the cart will be moved 
forward with a force of 15 pounds. Suppose the ob- 
structing boy drops out of the way. The boy pushing, 
exerting no more force than at first, can move double 
the load, or move the same load faster. It is this boy 
that, while putting forth no more energy, is accomplish- 
ing work. It is not the obstructing boy who is doing any 
work. His case is simply that of resistance removed. 
He is simply out of the way. 

It is the same with a vacuum. It is simply atmos- 
pheric resistance removed. A vacuum cannot suck water 
out of a condenser or out of any other place. 

Water has never been raised by a vacuum, even to 
the extent of one one-thousandth part of an inch. It 
has always been raised by pressure. 



194 



Tools for the Engine Room. 

An important item for the engineer is a complement 
of handy tools. The much-abused monkey-wrench will 
never be entirely replaced, but, if one can afford it, a set 
of drop-forged steel wrenches will do much better work, 
as they do not spring. 

Sometimes there will be a large nut or plug that no 
ordinary wrench will fit, when a square bar of steel can 
be bent at the end, as shown. The bar should be of 
sufficient area so that it will not spring open, and as 
the entire bar can be used for a lever it makes a power- 
ful wrench. 

One form of home-made, large monkey-wrench is made 
like Fig. 92, the key being used to set the jaws for any 
sized nut. These are made 4 feet long, with a hole 
at the end of the lever for attaching a small tackle. 

Sometimes an obstinate nut can be started by holding 
it hard against the nut and striking the end of the wrench 
with the ball of the hand, or a block of heavy wood can 
be used, striking the wrench with the end of the stick. 
A stick of wood does not batter the wrench like a ham- 
mer and does more effectual work — a hammer strikes too 
solid a blow and is liable to break something. 

Altogether too many wrenches are ruined by the use 
of hammers, and in screwing up work, too many bolts are 
broken or are strained to such an extent that they let go 
in service. A piece of gas pipe over the end of a wrench 
has been the cause of many disasters. 

A handy tool for many uses is the Jimmy. This is made 
from ^-inch steel and is 18 inches long. Another form 
is also shown, the long end being used to put through 
holes in flanges to bring them into line. 

195 



5 



y 



^ 



u u 

CO u 

.<« i^ 

4) O C 

0* 2 '^ 

^ s <u 

bCfe OS 



U V/ 



<1J 




(1> 


, 


be 


M 


4) 


o 


^ 


s 


bfl 


o 


.s 


o 




ll 


15 . 


qj 




C 


t O- . 


"Sjo 


., '-' o 


c 
W 


^ o.s 




" «-s 




•?.-.« 


c5 


>c.S 


OS 


Oi <A>^ 




^Ao 


bb 


^<^ 


s 



bo 

^ « ^ o 

o bo^-js 
■Bbcg^^ 



Engineers* Handy Tools. 

Wrecking wedges, as shown, are used for opening 
joints of all kinds, being sharp at the end and a long 
taper. They are easily inserted and very powerful. 

For cleaning flanges that can be separated but slight- 
ly the thin tools are convenient, the tool being but 1-16 
inch thick and the flat part 4 to 5 inches long. A small 
screw-jack, the jeck being 3 inches long, is a convenient 
tool. 

A handy form of scraper in many cases for flange 
joints is shown, also a hardwood stick for driving 
packing into stuffing boxes. This does not injure the 
rod. For removing packing a hook at the end like a 
corkscrew is the neatest thing, although if the packing 
is thoroughly rotten, the old-style hook, simply the end 
of a rod bent over, must be resorted to. 

At the present time very neat cutters for cutting glass 
gages are on the market, but where one finds himself 
without one he can make the tools shown. In order to 
do a neat job it is necessary to cut the glass on the inside. 
This tool is drawn down and bent over as shown, and 
the point made sharp. 

When hardening, be careful not to heat the tool too 
hot. It is not necessary to draw the temper any, provided 
it was not too hot. When steel is too hot and plunged 
into water, the grain is made coarser and the work will 
be brittle. If heated just right, the grain will be made 
finer and the tool will be hard and tough and difficult 
to break. With this tool a scratch can be made around 
the inside of the glass tube, and, if it does not break of 
itself, it can be broken by placing the end of the thumbs 
on each side of the crack and attempting to bend it. It 
will then break off at the mark made by the tool. 

197 



Belting. 

I was called upon to examine and report upon a belt, 
as the claim had been put forth that it was a sham. 

I found the belt connecting the engine to line shaft, 
the engine pulley 20 feet in diameter and shaft pulley 
about 5 feet. 

The belt was made from a fine quality of leather and 
well put together. It had been stretched .so that in many 
places the leather was actually pulled apart and still the 
glue held. 

The belt was large enough for the work, but the 
center of shafts were not far apart, making a short belt, 
and as the pull was on top, it was necessary to keep it 
taut. There was no idler. 

The case was diagnosed as follows : As the belt 
centers were short and it was necessary that the belt be 
tight to drive the load, there had been trouble with the 
belt stretching. When the weather is damp a belt will 
stretch and will grow short again when the weather is dry. 

The belt having given trouble by stretching, it was 
but natural that the men when taking it up should say 
that they would take it up so that it would be all right 
for a long time. Should this be done when there was 
damp weather and a severe strain be put on it then, when 
the weather became dry it would be put to a severe test 
and would probably be in the condition found. 

The concern using the belt did not believe in idlers. 
There are many ideas both for and against idlers. When 
the belt is long and pull on the bottom, idlers are not nec- 
essary. When the belt is short and the pull is on top, an 
idler saves many anxious moments. An idler should al- 
ways be put on the slack side of the belt whether the slack 
side be bottom or top. 

198 



Don't Run Belts Too Tight. 

An idler should be arranged, in adition to the tight- 
ening screws, so that one end of the shaft can be moved 
back and forth by screws. This will serve to guide the 
belt and ofttimes save tightening it. It does this on the 
same principle that a roll can be knocked sideways when 
moving a load. 

Fig. 93 shows one form of tightener with a side ad- 
justment for the end of shaft. 




mA=----~-^~-~"----td3 




Fig. 93. A substantial tightener. 

A belt should never be run tighter than absolutely 
necessary, both on account of friction of shaft and also 
the life of the belt. 

Where an idler is used the belt can be tightened and 
save many a shut-down. When screwing up a tightener 
it is only in rare cases that a man does not get tired and 
stop when the belt is sufficiently tight. There may be a 
few cases different, but they are rare. When a belt has 
to be tightened by shutting down and using belt clamps, 
the temptation is to overdo things. 

A belt, to be of value, should be made of the best 



199 



Picking Out a Good Belt. 

part of the hide, which is the back. The neck and shoul- 
ders are a spongy mass, easily absorbing moisture and 
stretching in all directions. In the belly, the grain runs 
different and this is also inferior. 

The hide is thick at the center of the back and slop- 
ing down thinner for a short distance and then gradually 
growing thicker to the belly. Fig. 94 is an exaggerated 
cross section. 

The dotted lines on Fig. 95 show all the portion that 
should be taken from the hide for the manufacture of 
belts. Fifty-four inches has been settled upon as the 
longest part that should be put in a belt. There are many 
hides that will yield longer pieces than this, but if only 
54 inches are allowed, one is fairly safe. 



Fig. 94. Exaggerated cross section of a hide. 

The backs are called ''centers." After one has be- 
come familiar with the appearance of the center of the 
back he cannot be deceived. There is no possible way 
discovered yet of imitating it and one can always tell 
whether a piece of belting has the center of the back run- 
ning through it. 

A belt larger than 48 inches wide should have more 
than one center, else it will be encroaching on the belly, 
with a stretchy belt as the result. 

A belt of more than one ply should be made of only 
solid leather without any filling. 

It should be borne in mind that a hide is not uniform 
in thickness, and that to produce a belt of the same thick- 
ness throughout, the hide must have the high portions 

200 



Where Belt Leather Should Come From. 

shaved down on the flesh side, or the low places must be 
filled up with leather shavings. 

When a belt is put together it should be with glue 
alone and there is no excuse for stitches, pegs or rivets. 

Some belt makers claim that to shave down the high 
parts of the flesh side so as to make the thickness uni- 
form greatly reduces the strength of the hide, and that a 
stronger belt can be made by filling the low places and 
they succeed in getting many of their customers to be- 
lieve it. This is a matter for the purchaser to decide. 




Fig. 95. Shows only part to be used for belts. 



It would be a good idea for him to see the belt put to- 
gether if he elects to have the leather shaved down. 

Heavy main belts should weigh not less than 16 
ounces per square foot for each single ply without any 
filling.. 

A double ply will be a little over ^ of an inch thick 
and three ply ^ inch thick. 

At one time I had the pleasure of putting on a three- 
ply belt that was plump %. inch thick, and that without 



201 



Making a Wide Belt. 

any filling of any kind. The belt maker was 'two years 
selecting the hides for this belt. 

Hides for a belt should be dried on a stretcher and 
should be seasoned for several months, so that the order 
for an important belt should be given as early as pos- 
sible. 

We have here again two ideas. Some makers claim 
that to take the stretch out of new leather permanently 
injures it and that a belt will be longer lived if it is 
stretched in use — and business is shut down to take it up 
several times. Even if this were so, the interruption of 
business for. taking up a belt frequently would be of more 
account than the cost of a new belt. 



Fig. 96. The best way to make a wide belt. • 

When pulleys are properly made and the shafts in 
line, there are two causes for a belt not running true. 
One is that the belt is not made straight, or the last joint 
is not put together straight. The other is lack of uni- 
formity in the hides, there being belly leather and one side 
stretching more than the other. 

An excellent way to make a belt 48 inches wide and 
over is to put three centers on one side and two on the 
other made with a running splice, or the joints length- 
wise lapping about 3 inches instead of butting together. 
This is a more expensive belt, but fine running. Fjg. 96. 

To determine the length of a belt, multiply the dis- 
tance between center of shafts by two, add the diameter 
of the two pulleys together, divide by two and multiply by 
3^. Add this product to the first product. 

202 



Horse-power of Belts. 

To determine the horse-power of a belt some authori- 
ties give the speed of a i-inch belt as 600 feet equals i 
horse-power, and from that on to 1,000 feet equals i horse- 
power. 

If we take the first the rule is : 
speed X width 

= H.P. 

600 
If we have a single belt 12 inches wide and running 
5,000 feet per minute, it becomes 
5,000 X 12 

= 100 H.P. 

600 
Should we take 1,000 feet as i horse-power it would 
make 60 horse-power. 

Another rule takes into account the allowable strain 
on a belt, which is taken to be 70 pounds as the highest 
allowable strain on a belt one inch wide, 
speed X width X strain 
= H.P. 



or 



33,000 
5,000 X 12 X 70 



:=: 127 H.P. 



33,000 

By adding another ply will add 75 per cent, to the 
strength of the belt. 

Extra plys add weight, which is also important. 

Belts sometimes do not run well because the pulleys 
are not turned accurately. 

At one place an engineer put up some work where 
the belt ran to one side and the purchaser was very much 
put out and was saying all sorts' of things about the belt 

203 



Arc of Contact vs. Speed. 

and wanted the maker sent for right away. The engineer 
admitted that if he belt was tlie cause of the trouble the 
maker should be called upon to remedy it, but suggested 
that before he was called uj on that the purchaser should 
do the first thing the belt mak(ir would do — measure the 
pulleys. This was done and the engine pulley, 20 feet in 
diameter, was found ^ inch larger on one side than the 
other. After this was straightened out there was no 
further trouble. 

There used to be a great account made of the "arc 
of contact" on the pulley notwithstanding that the belt 
usually slips on the driving pulley, which is the largest 
and has the largest "arc of contact." One strong "arc of 
contact" man argued that as he had had trouble with the 
belt slipping on some of his work and as increasing the 
diameter of his pulleys had remedied the slipping, there- 
fore the larger pulleys, having a larger "arc of contact," 
were what was desired. After some talk he finally ad- 
mitted that the higher belt speed caused by the larger 
diameter pulleys might have something to do with it. 

Belts that run at a high speed frequently get charged 
with static electricity. This dries out a belt, rendering it 
dry and brittle. 

A copper wire, size from No. 6 to No. 12, with a 
number of points composed of wire, stretched across the 
belt at a point where it runs the smoothest, the points of 
wire being about i inch from the belt and the ends of 
the wire grounded on bearings, or anywhere convenient, 
will remove all that is harmful. 

New belts are dressed with what is termed "water- 
proof dressing." Hardly two belt makers use the same 
preparation. It should be made from ingredients that will 
keep the hfelt soft and pliable, and is waterproof only so 

204 



A Good Belt Dressing. 

far as it has filled the pores of the belt and leaves smaller 
space for moisture. 

One of the best belt dressings is made from i part 
neatsfoot oil and 3 parts castor oil. 

Nothing should ever be put on a belt except some- 
thing that will keep it clean, soft, pliable, etc. No rosin, 
or like drying or sticky substance should ever be allowed 
upon a belt, either alone, or in conection with other in- 
gredients. But little should be put on at a time. 




Fig. 97. A good hinge joint. 

In dusty places nothing has yet been found that is 
good for the belt that will prevent the belt from catching 
the dust. In such places belts should be kept as clean as 
possible by frequent wiping, and even with the best of 
care they will have to be changed and thoroughly cleaned 
frequently. 

- The best joint for a belt is the cemented joint. This 
requires time to shave down properly, and about five 
hours to set. Because it cannot be pressed like the rest 
of the belt there will be some noise when this joint goes 
over the pulley, but if properly done there will be no 
jumping and the speed will be uniform. 

205 



Lacing a Belt. 

The worst joint is the ordinary laced joint. It has 
the merit of being quickly made. Another method is the 
"hinge plan" shown in Fig. 97. An important item 
in this plan is good lace leather, which should be strong, 
well tanned and uniform in thickness. 

Annealed nickel wire makes a good belt lacing, or 
what is better a composition wire made especially for this 
purpose. 

Number 18 wire will do for single 3-inch belts and 
number 10 for double for 6 inch and above. 

A single row of holes are used, the holes being no 
farther from the end than the thickness of belt and ^ inch 
apart and should be cut with a 3-32 inch belt punch. Cut 
depression on inside of belt for the wire. Commence lac- 
ing at center by passing the ends of the wire through the 
two center holes to the pulley side of the belt. The lac- 
ing should be double on the pulley side; then lace each 
way to the side, double lacing on the inside, drawing up 
tightly all the time without kinks or crossing the wire. 
When finished, flatten down with a hammer on some new 

surface. 

With a proper wire laced joint there is no jar. 

There are various patent metallic fastenings, many of 
them doing first-class service. 

A good form of specifications for belt is as follows : 

Specification for belt to be put on pulleys 10 feet and 
9 feet 6 inches diameter and shaft centers 48 feet : 

The belt shall be made from the centers of selected 
hides, which shall be well seasoned and stretched, shall be 
from pure oak-tanned leather. 

The belt shall be 60 inches wide, shall be three ply, 
made with running splice, shall have three centers on one 
face and two on the other, and three in middle ply. No 

206 



Belt Specifications. 

center shall be longer than 54 inches. The belt shall be 
made without filling, splits or rivets, and shall weigh when 
finished 48 ounces to each square foot before any water- 
proofing is applied. 

When the hides are ready to make up the engineer 
shall be notified in ample time and shall have the oppor- 
tunity to examine the hides and also see the belt put to- 
gether. 

After putting together the belt shall be thoroughly 
treated with a waterproof dressing acceptable to the en- 
gineer. 

The manufacturer shall furnish sample of belt he pro- 
poses to furnish with his proposal. This sample shall be 
12 inches square and shall show the texture, weight, etc., 
that are proposed, and the maker agrees that if the belt 
shall not, in every particular, be equal to the sample in 
weight, texture, etc., and made according to specifications, 
he will put the belt on the pulleys and allow it to be used 
without charge until a suitable belt can be procured. The 
sample of belt shall not be waterproofed. 

The maker shall put the belt on the pulleys and shall 
take it up once within one year if needed. 



207 



Oils. 



In the early days tallow was the lubricant for the 
cylinder, and there were many ingenious devices for feed- 
ing it. The cup that gave the best satisfaction was one 
having a bottom valve for adjusting the feed, a vent to 
open when filling and a valve at the top under a small 
cup. This required the tallow to be ''tried" out and kept 
in a pot set where it would keep warm, so the cup could 
be filled readily. 

There was another cup that was filled with ''leaf" 
tallow, and the tallow was cooked out by the steam heat. 
This plan had the merit of feeding slowly, but one hardly 
knew when it began to feed or when it ended. Taken as 
a lubricant alone, there is nothing superior to tallow. It 
also has the merit of not being expensive. It has in its 
composition, however, the animal stearic and oleac acids 
that are set free by heat and change all inside steam sur- 
faces into oxide of iron. A cylinder head made from 
iron was very porous, and in a few years the acids from 
the tallow had worked through these pores, making them 
larger, until the steam leaked through so much that the 
head was ruined. 

There was also a sediment from the tallow, which, 

208 



A Good Oil. 

mixed with the corroded iron, would form balls that 
would sometimes clog the steam passages. 

Neatsfoot and lard oils were used, and while not 
forming the balls from sediment as much as tallow, they 
would corrode about the same. 

Sperm oil did very well, when genuine sperm could 
be obtained, but the trouble with the fish oils of all kinds 
was the amount of gum they would leave, requiring the 
valves and piston to be all taken apart and cleaned once 
in three or four months, and the piston follower bolts 
that were broken were legion. 

An engineer had had his trials with all these lubri- 
cants, when one day an oil agent appeared who claimed 
to have a new oil, made from petroleum with a slight 
amount of animal oil, that would do better work than the 
animal oils, would not gum or corrode, and would clean 
out all the old oil. His story seemed so much like a fairy 
tale, the engineer was not inclined to deal with him, but 
he persisted in having a barrel sent for trial, and it was 
thought an easy way to get rid of him. 

When the engineer came to try the oil, he found the 
agent had not overstated it, and it did elegant work. 
After this oil had been introduced and it was found that 
petroleum was a good cylinder lubricant, other manufac- 
turers commenced producing oils from petroleum, the 
systems and mixtures being different. Some attempted 
to make cylinder oil from clear petroleum. 

One day the treasurer came to the engineer and told 
him there was an oil firm he would like to purchase from, 
on account of the price of the goods and also for other 
business reasons, and they were to send a barrel for trial. 

After using the oil two or three days, the engineer 
reported the oil fully equal to anything they had used. 

209 



Oil Agents. 

After two weeks he could not lubricate the valves, and 
reported the manner in which the oil was working, but 
said he could manage to use it up. The oil was a straight 
petroleum; a piece of tallow as large as a hen's tgg was 
put in a quart, and it went all right. That proportion of 
tallow will not show in the cylinder, but use one-half, and 
the deposit in the cylinder will remind one of the old 
days of tallow. 

When trying different oils it was noticed that after a 
good oil had been used for some time and a new oil was 
put in, for a few days the new oil would work better, even 
though it were an inferior oil. In two or three weeks 
much larger quantities would be required. It is this 
peculiarity that has been the undoing of many engfineers 
who have persisted in opposing a change in oils. 

An oil agent would come along and want to sell a 
cheaper oil for a cheaper price, but could not get the con- 
sent of the engineer. The agent would then propose to 
the manager that he deliver to the agent one of his empty 
oil barrels and he would fill it with his oil, while the en- 
gineer, knowing nothing of the trade, would suppose he 
was using the same oil, and when asked by the manager 
if the oil was still going all right would reply that it was. 
This would be deemed proof that the engineer was 
untruthful, and he would get his discharge. If an inferior 
oil would always show up within a day or two, many an 
engineer's reputation would have been saved. 

At the time the engineer tried the petroleum product 
there were no lubricators and he had only an oil pump. 
In a 28-inch cylinder he would put ' in about two table- 
spoonfuls at one and one-half hour intervals. What 
would be thought of oiling a cylinder in that manner and 
quantity nowadays, when, if there is an oil pump on a 

210 



Oil That Doesn't Lubricate. 

cylinder, the man running the engine will pump in a tea- 
cupful every half hour in addition to the sight feed. 

Shortly after the petroleum oils came in use, the 
sight-feed lubricators came out. These made possible 
constant and correct lubrication. Since then have come 
the mechanical oil pumps, so that engineers can now take 
their choice of a number of first-class devices. 

The requisite for a cylinder oil is that it shall be suit- 
ed to the temperature, the quality of the steam and the 
weight of the parts to be lubricated. In the first place 
the oil should be vaporized. 

It will be noticed that when an oil requires large 
quantities a large amount of the oil will be found in 
the cylinder in the same condition that it was in before 
using, while an oil that did efficient service none of it 
would be found in the cylinder, except in the form of 
milky water in low places. 

The effects of it, however, could be plainly seen. 
Should an oil not be of sufficient high-flash test, none of 
it will be found in the cylinder, and the surfaces will 
appear dry and devoid of lubrication. 

For high pressure and light pistons an oil having a 
high fire test and medium body or viscosity is required, 
while with low pressure and heavy pistons, a low fire 
test and heavy body is required. 

If an engineer has only the high fire test oil he can 
sometimes make it right for the low-pressure cylinder by 
the addition of ordinary lubricating oil, provided there be 
sufficient animal oil compounded with the cylinder oil. 
If not properly compounded, if he can get tallow that is 
clean, he will find it of advantage to put in a tablespoonful 
of that to a quart of his cylinder oil. This proportion of 
tallow will have no ill effect in the cylinder. 

211 



To Detect Alkali. 

In some rare cases, where a high fire test oil is used 
for high pressure and the body of the oil is so heavy that 
it will not find its way under light-weight moving parts, 
the addition of one-quarter of ordinary engine oil will 
improve it. 

For heavy weights and low pressure steam there 
must be some animal oil. An indication of what this 
animal oil is is shown by saponifying a sample. Take a 
2-ounce bottle, fill half full of water and put in a stick of 
caustic soda or potash or a little strong ammonia, and then 
fill nearly full with the oil and shake it well. Petroleum 
will not make soap, but animal oils will, so that the animal 
oil will separate and leave the mineral oil intact, except 
when compounded in special ways with neatsfoot oil, 
when the whole of it, mineral oil and all, will thicken. 

Neatsfoot oil will make a yellow soap, lard oil and 
tallow a white soap, fish oils a little darker color than lard 
oil. If you are buying a pure lard, sperm or any animal 
oil, the saponifying test will indicate whether it is adulter- 
ated with the cheaper mineral products 

To detect acids or alkali in the oil, wash a sample of 
oil with distilled water and draw off the water. Take a 
piece of blue litmus paper and dip in the water, and if it 
turns red there is acid in the water. If red litmus paper 
turns blue, there is alkali. 

Many engineers have a high regard for graphite and 
have believed that if it were possible to suspend graphite 
in oil so that it would feed in an ordinary lubricator with- 
out clogging, it would be an ideal cylinder lubricant. 

To suspend graphite in oil the question of gravity 
comes in, and some oil or some substance must be used 
that is heavier than graphite so that the graphite will float 
in it. Will such a substance be a good cylinder oil? 

212 



Viscosity. 

Such a combination has been made and the floating of the 
graphite is perfect. 

I have mentioned viscosity in oils. It is generally sup- 
posed to mean, body, or ability to withstand pressure, a 
highly viscous oil may be valueless. 

The test for viscosity is the length of time in seconds 
it requires for a given quantity of oil to flow through 
a given opening at a given temperature. 

It is the length of time in seconds that it requires for 
60 cubic centimeters of the oil at 212° to flow through 
an opening of about %". 

An oil requiring 175 seconds would be 175 deg. vis- 
cosity and one requiring 150 seconds would be 150 
degrees viscosity. 

There should be no pressure but its own weight. 

The most viscous oil from petroleum is the tar resi- 
due, of no value, while the least viscous is tallow, the 
highest value as a lubricant known, so that viscosity is an 
indication, not a proof. 

One day an oil agent called on the engineer, but was 
told that oil was out of date, that a graphite oil had been 
procured and no more cylinder oil would be needed. 

Said the agent : ''What is the easiest running bearing 
made? Is there any bearing that is less frictionless than 
a ball bearing?" The engineer admitted there was none. 

Said the agent : *Tt is the ball bearing that represents 
the oil. Oil is made up of globules which roll like a ball 
bearing. Graphite, to be of value, must be the flake 
graphite. Flake graphite must cause sliding friction and 
sliding friction will always be greater than rolling fric- 
tion. Graphite may do good in filling up low places, but 
as a lubricant it will not take the place of oil." 

The engineer went ahead and tried his graphite, and 

213 



Continuous Oiling. 

while it fed perfectly it would not do the work of oil and 
was abandoned. It appeared to work more like the cylin- 
der oil that does not vaporize. 

Machine oil can be all mineral oil, and should be for 
some places. Wherever the oil is in a case with mechan- 
ism running in the same, should there be animal oil of any 
kind compounded with the mineral, the animal oil or fats 
will form an emulsion and soon get thick and unfit for use. 
When oil is filtered and continually used it should be all 
mineral. 

The ideal oil is one that can be used in a hot room in 
summer and will feed in exposed places in winter. This 
kind is seldom found. There are many good oils that will 
feed in winter that become so light by warmth that they 
are valueless in sum.mer for heavy work, and the heavy 
oil that is necessary for summer use will not feed in win- 
ter. There are a few oils that can be used at any time. 

With modern systems of catching oil it is possible to 
keep a continuous stream of oil on the bearings, pipe the 
drain to an oil filter, raise the oil to a distributing tank 
and pipe from there to the different journals. Where 
air pressure is at hand it makes a cheap and efficient meth- 
od of raising the oil. There are many elaborate systems 
for doing this. A simple way is to let the oil run into a 
tank capable of holding sufficient pressure 

Here the pipe to take out the oil extends to nearly 
the bottom of tank and the air inlet opens at the top. 
When air is turned on, the pressure on top of the oil forces 
it to a height due to the pressure. There should be two 
tanks, so that the drain can be kept constant. The filter 
can be below or above the engine, as most convenient. 
Where air pressure is not convenient, a small pump can 
be used and an attachment made to some part of engine. 

214 



About Grease. 

When a man is obliged to use an oil that thickens by 
cold he will need to be careful of his drain pipes. These 
pipes should not be less than i inch in diameter. In one 
case a drain i inch in diameter that was laid on the floor 
alongside the wheel pit the oil would not drain even when 
the engine-room was warm. It was finally seen that the 
air set in motion by the wheel was sufficiently cool to chill 
the pipe, and it became necessary to put a box around the 
pipe and a ^-inch steam pipe alongside the drain pipe. 

Some engineers prefer grease because it is cleaner. 
A few claim it is cheaper, but its advantage over oil is 
problematical. Grease is .made from horse oil ; a better 
grease is made from mule oil. Either has a terribly rank 
smell, and to overcome this they are flavored with oil of 
mervane, which drowns the bad smell and gives the 
grease the flavor of a peach pit. 

To be of value oil must be manufactured from good 
stock and by those that understand the business. A first- 
class cylinder stock just mixed with a lighter oil will not 
give the results required unless it be put together in 
proper form. 

A good test for oil is to make a bearing for the 
largest shaft available and line it with babbitt metal. On 
top of this bearing put a hole for an oil cup and another 
hole extending through top and nearly through the bab- 
bitt, so that it will come to within 3-16 inch of the shaft. 
This is for a thermometer. Arrange a clamp of wood 
or iron like Fig. 98, with a weight at the end of the lever. 
When oil is to be tried, set the oil to feeding and tighten 
bolts so as to just balance the weight. The oil should 
have a determined length of time to flow, say one-half 
hour or one hour. Several trials should be made with a 



215 



Testing Oil. 

standard oil, so as to be accustomed to its use, before try- 
ing oil for comparison. 

A heavy oil should not be fed as many drops per min- 
ute as a light oil, as there is more oil in a drop of the 
heavy than in the light. 

After becoming accustomed to the machine so as to 
feed the proper amount, the thermometer will indicate 
which has the best lubricating properties. 

A straight, clean mineral oil can be filtered continu- 
ously, and care should be used to save all oil by proper 




Fig. 98. Oil testing device. 



guards and pans, and but a small amount of new oil need 
be used. With a good filter, filtered oil will cool a hot 
journal more quickly than new oil. 

For shafting, ring oiling bearings should be used, 
and the rings should be solid and not less than ^ inch in 
width. Rings made from half-round material, bent into 
a circle and the ends not closed together securely are liable 
to get out of shape, the ends catch and the feed be stopped. 

216 



Oiling Bearings. 

It is not a bad idea to have pockets on the outside of 
the ring, but these pockets should be smooth on the out- 
side and should not project beyond a true circle, as oth- 
erwise they might catch and stop the ring. 

The thrust rings should aways be in the center of 
the bearing and the groove should be lined with babbitt 
At each end of bearing should be a small collar turned to 
a sharp edge. This will throw off all oil and prevent it 
running along the shaft. The babbitt wipers usually used 
for this purpose do not do the work satisfactorily, and 
there is a waste of oil as well as an untidy looking shaft 
and floor. 

The oil cellars should be of ample size. For a 5-inch 
shaft, they should be not less than 2 quarts capacity, and 
would be still better if they held a gallon. 

A few engine builders are getting to building ring 
or chain oiling bearings for the engine shaft. This, when 
universal, will be a great improvement. 

For oiling crosshead pins the telescope oiling device 
is a neat thing, as it places the oil cup where it can be 
filled and adjusted at any time, and there is not the spat- 
tering of oil as with the wiper. It also works nicely on 
the eccentrics. 



217 



cleaning. 
▼ ▼ ▼ 

Should any part of the machinery get covered with 
gum, use a strong sokition of potash. This can be ap- 
pHed with a piece of waste wrapped around a stick. If 
the metal is cold it will not be discolored, but if hot, the 
metal will be blue. A strong ammonia will do the same 
thing. The work needs polishing afterwards in either 
case. Ft)r this purpose, when cold, get a pepper box and 
use Rosedale cement on a wet rag. The moisture soon 
dries out, and the dry cement can be easily wiped off, 
leaving the work thoroughly clean. As the metal is clean 
it will rust quickly should it be exposed to dampness. 

When cleaning an engine, after it is wiped as clean 
as possible with waste, a little of this dry cement on a 
piece of waste will remove the last vestige of oil and 
leave the work clean and bright. For this latter work 
rotten stone is better. Use care not to get any of either 
on the bearings. 

Some engineers like their bright work burnished. 
Those who have the time and inclination can do this as 
follows : If the finish on the engine is rough, use coarse 
emery cloth to bring the surface down level and finish 
with fine. Take a drill rod and heat it to a mild x:herry 

218 



Cleaning Solutions. 

red and dip it in water. Do not draw the temper. Polish 
the rod with the fine emery and then draw the rod at right 
angle over the work, using considerable pressure. When 
the engine is wiped, use a fine powder hke rotten stone. 
Be careful about the bearings. 

For cleaning the brasses around the pins, rub with 
waste until bright. This requires some time at first. 
After they are once bright it is easy to keep them so. 

Oil is good to clean off fresh tarnish, and if the 
oil is wiped off every day and then a piece of clean waste 
used to wipe dry and clean, the brass can be made to 
shine all the time, without the use of any powder or 
cleaner, and no harm done to the pins. Brass oil cups 
can be treated in the same manner. 

In the days when the dome, sand box and wagon top 
of a locomotive was covered with brass, as a general 
thing the firemen had nothing but Rosedale cement to 
clean with. This was piit on with oil to scour the tar- 
nish off and then the polishing was done with dry 
cement. - 

The firemen learned that a solution of oxalic acid 
would remove the tarnish and then the scouring was 
easy. Some firemen used to get spermaceatic candles, 
rub the brass over and let it stand a few hours, or over 
night, when it could be wiped off and the brass was clean. 

Since that time a number of poHshing pastes have 
come into use. They require but little labor, leave the 
brass a nice color, and are also good to clean the hot 
ironwork. Tripoli is one of the best. 

Paint work should be wiped clean every day, paying 
particular attention to the corners. An engineer's thor- 
oughness can be told by looking at the corners. On work 
that has not been cleaned for a few days, and also on 

219 



Leaving a Film of Oil. 

work where the varnish is getting thin, take a piece of 
waste, get it wet through and squeeze out most of the 
water and put on some engine oil, about the same quan- 
tity as there is water. Wipe the work over with this. 
In the case of considerable dirt, it should be rubbed until 
thoroughly clean. It is a good idea^ to wipe off after- 
wards with clean waste, especially if the surface was 
dirty. This leaves just a very thin film of oil, the paint 
is clean and the work looks nearly like new varnish 
work. This is a neat way of caring for work that is 
exposed to the weather. 



220 



Notes, Rules and Tables. 

T ▼ ▼ 

One H. P. is 33,000 pounds raised one foot high in 
one minute, or 33,000 foot pounds per minute. 

A heat unit or H. U. or British thermal unit or B. 
T. U. is the heat required to raise one pound of water 
at 39.1° one degree. 

According to Joule's experiments i heat unit was 
equal to 772 foot pounds, but further experiments have 
demonstrated that one heat unit is equal to 778 foot 
pounds, 33,000 foot pounds per minute divided by 778 = 
42.62 heat units per H. P. per minute, or 42.62 X 60 = 
2557.20 heat units per hour. 

A pound of carbon contains 14,500 H. U. A pound 
of coal having 10% of ash will have remaining 13,050 
H. U. 

A good boiler with a good fireman should get 75% 
of this into steam, which allows 8% for radiation and 
losses from air leaks, etc., and 17% loss of heat in gases 
going up the chimney, which leaves 9787.5 H. U. in 
steam per pound coal. Of this, 2257.20 is converted into 
work, the remainder, or 7230.30, going out in the exhaust. 

This is providing that i pound coal produces i H. P. 
If it requires 2 pounds, then the total H. U. will be 

221 



Keep the Boiler Clean. 

9787.5 X 2 = 19575 — 2557.2 = 17017.8 H. U. going 
out in the exhaust. 

As the H. U. in i pound coal with 10% of ash is 
13050, this number divided by 2557.20 == 5.1 H. P. that 
would be obtained with one pound coal, if all the heat 
could be converted into work, or if the heat put into 
steam, 9787.5 H. U. could be converted into work, it 
would make 

9787.5 
— '■ ^ 3,86 H. P. per pound coal. 

2557.2 

The efficiency of the boiler will depend upon the 
ease with which it can be kept clean, the tightness of its 
setting in preventing air leaks, the thinness of the heating 
surface, the draft and the circulation. 

The latter point is very important. The greater 
the difference in temperature between the water within 
the boiler and the fire the more rapid the absorption of 
heat. The more rapid the water flows over the heating 
surface bringing fresh water into contact, the greater 
will be this difference, and the more rapid the move- 
ment of the water the easier will be the disengagement 
of the steam. 

Wrought iron expands i-i 50000 of an inch per inch 
for each degree. 

A pipe 300 feet long and 150 lbs. pressure would 
expand as follows : 300 ft. is 3600 inches. Temperature 
of room 80°. Temperature of steam at 150 lbs. pressure 
366° less the 80° ^ 286° difference in temperature of 

3600 X 286 

pipe. =6.86 inches the pipe would expand. 

, 150000 

222 



Standards of Pressure. 

All pressures are measured or standardized by the 
weight of mercury. 

The atmosphere sustains mercury 30" high. 

One cubic inch of mercury weighs .49 of a pound. 

30 X .49 = 147- 

Weight of water. 

A pressure of one pound is exerted per square inch 
by a column of water 2.3093' high, and one atmosphere, 
or 14.7 pounds, by a column 33.947' high. 

The pressure multiplied by 2.3093 will give the 
height of a column of water due to that pressure. 

A column i' high has a pressure of .433 pounds. 
Height, multiplied by .433 equals the pressure. 

The efficiency of an engine depends upon the small 
amount of heat required to do a certain amount of work. 

The engine that has the lowest terminal pressure 
in proportion to the mean effective pressure will require 
the least heat, or, put in another way, the lowest amount 
of heat will go out in the exhaust. 

An engine that requires a large amount of com- 
pression to secure quiet running will have a rounded cut- 
off corner on the diagram, and this, together with the 
compression, will make the terminal pressure higher. 

An engine having a slow piston speed will condense 
a large amount of steam when it enters the cylinder, and 
this will be re-evaporated towards the end, bringing the 
terminal pressure high. 

Too slow piston speed will give too much time for 
a cylinder to cool off and cause cylinder condensation, 
with consequent re-evaporation. 

Should we wish to get a high piston speed we have 
the problem of rotation speed to contend with. 

To get a piston speed of 800' per minute we can 

223 



About Clearance. 

build an engine with 6' stroke and 66 revolutions. This 
number of revolutions will require no more compression 
than is necessary to lap the exhaust valves to have them 
seated properly when the steam valves open, the indicator 
card will show nearly square corners all around, which 
will be the theoretic and practical card for economy. 

Should we conclude that this stroke is too long, we 
can divide it by 4, making it 18" stroke and a rotative 
speed of 266 revolutions. The piston speed is the same, 
but the compression required will increase as the square 
of the number of the revolutions, the card from the 
engine will have round corners and the terminal pressure 
will be higher. 

Clearance plays an important part. 

Clearance is that portion that exists between the 
piston and cylinder head, between the valves and cylinder 
in the steam parts and in any depressions in the piston 
or heads. 

The clearance spaces are filled with steam at each 
stroke and are emptied, doing only the work that the 
steam in them expands, and are finally emptied, the unex- 
panded portion doing no work. The eflfect is to increase 
the terminal pressure. 

The clearance spaces are filled and emptied at each 
stroke. 

The shorter the stroke, the greater the percentage 
of clearance. 

The nearer the valve is to the cylinder, and the 
shorter and smaller the port, provided it is of ample area 
for the passage of the steam, the less will be the clear- 
ance, which is the reason for the four-valve engine. 

The quicker the cut-off valve closes, the sharper 
will be the cut-off and the lower will be the terminal 

224 



Compression — Lap — Lead. 

pressure. 

The terminal pressure will be the lowest in pro- 
portion to the mean effective pressure when the engine 
is cutting off at about ^ stroke, so that an engine loaded 
to that amount will be at its most economical load. 

Compression is the vapor enclosed within the cylin- 
der by the closing of the exhaust valve before the crank 
reaches the center. 

Its object is to absorb the inertia of the moving 
parts gradually and allow them to come to a state of 
rest without jar. 

Lap of a valve is the amount that the valve travels 
beyond the port more than is necessary to cover the 
same. Its office is to cover the port, or space beyond, 
sufficiently to insure tightness, and in a steam valve to 
provide for cutting off the steam. 

In an exhaust valve, to give compression. 

Lead is the amount the valve opens before the 
crank reaches the center. 

Pre-release is sometimes applied to the exhaust valve 
and is the same thing as lead on the steam valve. 

An eccentric is a wheel placed off the center, and is 
used to be placed on a shaft to give motion to the 
valves of an engine. 

The distance it will move a rod or valve is the 
extreme movement between the distance of its circum- 
ference on both sides of the shaft, and is termed the 
throw of the eccentric. 

The travel of the valve is the total distance the 
valve moves. 

If the eccentric rod be attached direct to valve the 
throw of eccentric and travel of valve will be the same. 

The travel of the valve should be the width of the 

225 



Selecting Size of Feed Pump. 

port and the lap. 

When it is desired to give a greater travel of the 
valve than the throw of the eccentric, a rocker arm is 
placed between, and by attaching the valve rod at a 
greater distance from the center than the eccentric rod 
the valve travel is lengthened. 

In the Corliss type, the rapidity of opening and clos- 
ing the valves is increased by the use of a wrist plate. 

To determine the size of pump for a set of boilers. 

A boiler H.P. is 30 pounds of water evaporated per 
hour, but it should be capable of evaporating 45 if a call 
for that should arise. 

Find the total amount that would be evaporated 
by the boiler, or set of boilers, per hour, and divide by 
60, which gives the amount per minute. Divide this 
by 8.33, which reduces the pounds to gallons. Multiply 
this by 231 will give the amount in cubic inches. 

A pump should not exceed a piston speed of 100' per 
minute. Multiplying 100 X 12 = 1200" piston speed. 
Divide the cubic inches by 1200 gives the area of 
piston. To get the diameter extract the square root or 
find the diameter from a table of areas. 

If we have 1000 H.P. and allow for a possible evap- 
oration of 45 pounds per H.P., 1000 X 45 = 45000 
45000 ^ 750 

pounds. = 750 pounds per minute. := 90 

60 8.33 

20790 

gallons. 90 X 231 = 20790 cubic in. = 17.2" 

1200 
area of piston, or 5" diam. 

There should be at least 10% allowed for slip and 
for duplex pump it would not be unwise to allow 20%. 

To determine how much water a pump will deliver, 

226 



"Powers" Rule for Pumps. 

multiply the area of the cylinder in inches by the stroke 
in inches and by the number of strokes per minute. 
This gives the cubic inch capacity. Divide this by 231 
gives the number of gallons. Gallons multipHed by 8.33 
equals the pounds, and by 60 gives the pounds per hour. 
Deduct the percentage for slip. 

To determine the power, multiply the area by the 
pressure of water and the speed of the piston, allow 
20% for friction, etc., and divide by 33000. 

"Power" gives the rule. Multiply' the number of 
gallons by 15 times the elevation and divide by 33000 
will give the H.P. 

To find the H.P. of a boiler from the heating sur- 
face, allow 12 square feet of heating surface for a 
tubular boiler and 10 square feet for a water tube. 

In a recent catalog of a well-known maker of engineer- 
ing specialties the writer noticed the following approxi- 
mate rules for calculating the horse-power of various 
kinds of boilers. The rules are intended for use in deter- 
mining the proper sizes of injectors and other apparatus 
when the exact dimensions or heating surface of the boil- 
er is unknown or hard to obtain : 

Kind H. P. 

Horizontal Tubular = Dia.^ X Length -^ 5 
Vertical " = Dia.2 X Height ^ 4 

Flue Boilers =z Dia. X Length ^ 3 

Locomotive Type. . = Dia. of Waist^ X 
Length over all ^ 6. 

All dimensions to be in feet. 

In the first and third cases the length is the length of 
the tubes or that of a "flush-head" boiler and does not 
include the extended smoke-box. In the second case, the 
height is that of a plain vertical boiler in which the upper 
part of the tubes is above the water line; it is not the 

227 



Boiler Ratings. 

height of a boiler with submerged tubes. 

The extreme simplicity of the rules aroused curiosity 
as to their accuracy and comparisons were made between 
manufacturers' ratings and ratings calculated by the 
formulas above. The results are given below. They 
agree very closely, except in a few of the larger sizes of 
tubular boilers, where the calculated rating falls below 
that of the manufacturer. And in these sizes it will be 
noticed that the heating surface per horse-power is less 
than in the smaller sizes where the two ratings practically 
agree. 

It is quite possible that the ratings of other manufac- 
turers would show a better or worse agreement. In any 
event, the rules prove to be valuable for just what is in- 
tended and will save considerable trouble in measuring 
up and calculating the power of existing boilers when 
ordering injectors, feed pumps, and the like. 

The ratio of grate surface to heating surface varies 
from I to 40, to I to 60. At 3 pounds of coal per H.P. 
and ratio, i to 40, the amount of coal burned per square 
foot of grate will be 12 pounds, while with a ratio of i to 
60 the consumption will be 19 pounds coal per square 
foot of grate. 

To find the contents of a shell boiler, multiply the 
area of the head in inches, less the area of all the tubes 
in inches by the length of the shell in inches. This gives 
the total capacity of the boiler. From this we must 
substract that portion not filled, or the segment of the 
circle. 

There are a number of short rules that are only 
approximate. 

To find the area of the segment of a circle, we first 
find the area of sector of a circle. 

228 



Calculating Steam Room. 

The length of the arc of a clrcle^chord of whole 
arc is 8 times the chord of half the arc, and taking ^ of 
the remainder. 

The area of the sector of a circle equals length of 
arc X Vi the radius. 

Area of segment of circle — area of sector of circle — 
area of triangle when segment is less than a semi- circle. 

A boiler ^2" diameter filled to within 18" of top 
will have the dimensions of cut, the radius being 36", 
the chord of whole arc 63'' and chord of half the arc 




Fig. 99. Boiler calculations. 

36". The two sides of triangular arc 36'' and base 63. 
From the above rule. 

8 X 36 — 63 = 225. One-third of this is 75 X 18 
(^ the radius of the circle) = 1350. 

The area of the triangle is found by adding the 

three sides together and dividing by 2. From the half 

sum subtract each side separately; multiply the half 

sum and the three remainders continuously together; 
take the square root of the product. 

135 
The three sides, 36, 36, 63. 36 -j- 36 + 63 = 



229 



How it is Figured. 

= 67.5 and 67.5 — 36 = 31.5; 67.5 — 63 = 4.5. And 
31.5 X 67.5 X 31-5 X 4.5 = 301388 and the square root 
549. 1350 — 549 = 801 square inches, area of segment. 

Another short method is to take the chord of the 
arc and versed sine, or the rise only. 

To Yz of the product of the chord A. B. and rise 
C. D. of the segment, add the cube of the rise, divided 
by twice the chord; the remainder is the area nearly. 

63 X 18 = 1134 X ?^ = 756. 

5832 

18X18X18 = 5832. 63X2=125. = 46 

126 
756 -{-46^^ 802 sq. in. area. 

To get at the principle requires use of the higher 
mathematics. 

With a copy of Trautwine's tables the result can be 
obtained accurately with but few figures. 

Divide the rise by diameter of circle. In the table 
find a number opposite the quotient and multiply this 
number by the square of the diameter. 

18 

— = .25. In the table opposite. '25 is the number 

^2 
.153546. 72 squared = 5184. .153546 X 5184 = 
795.98 area. This is the accurate area. 

From the same arc can be found the radius of a 
circle. 

Add the square of half the chord A. B. to the 
square of the rise C. D. and divide by twice the rise, 
gives the radius of the circle. 

This applies to a railroad curve or the arc of a 
pulley. 

Should the occasion arise, where the distance from 
center to circumference cannot be found, stretch a line 

230 



Area of Tubes. 

across the corcumference at any point and measure from 
center of line to circumference. 

The usual rule to apply for boiler braces is to allow 
2" space around the head and tubes that do not need 
bracmg. 

To find the area for the braces, find the area of 
segment of the space above the tubes and subtract the 2!' . 





Fig. 100. Showing area of inches. 



Fig. loi. 



The area of a circle is .7854 of the square of the 
diameter. Fig. 10 1. 

Doubling the diameter increases the area four times, 
as shown in Fig. 100. 



231 



Real Boiler Economy. 

T ▼ T 

When filling a boiler or emptying it without pressure, 
there should be a vent. Mr. P. H. Bullock puts a check 
in a vertical pipe j/4. inch in diameter, the check opening 
in. When there is no pressure, the check is always open 
and prevents a vacuum in the boiler when water is run- 
ning out, and will let air out when water is running in. 
It will close itself when steam is raised to about 2 pounds. 

When economy, ease of taking care, first cost, etc., 
are concerned, it is a difficult matter to beat a tubular 
boiler. When it comes to space occupied, long life, high 
pressure and large units, it is of necessity supplanted by 
the water tube. The water tube, correctly designed and 
honestly built, is also much safer than the tubular. 

Where the tubes are put into manifolds, or headers, 
and suspended from the drums by short tubes, these short 
tubes should be two sizes heavier than the tubes in boiler. 

For instance, a 4-inch tube is made from No. 10 
metal, and the short tubes should be No. 8. All of them 
should be full size in the thinnest part, and should be 
made from wrought iron. 

Grates under a boiler should last as long as the 
boiler, and this can only be done by keeping them cool. 

When a fire is cleaned by shutting the ash pit doors 
the grates become red hot. This will be more effectually 
done if the ash and small coal be left in the ash pit, espe- 
cially at night. When iron is heated to a red heat the 
grain becomes coarser under expansion and does not 
return to its original size when cooled. This process con- 
tinued causes the iron to swell in places where the heat 

232 



About Grate Bars. 

has been most intense and distortion occurs, bringing 
some portion up into the fire and the grates then go 
pretty fast. 

It is the better plan to have the ash pit made with a 
place to hold water 8" to lo" deep and keep water in it 
during the time there is fire on the grate. 

A B 




Fig. I02. Forms of grate bars. 

The ash pit doors should not be closed so long as 
there is fire on the grates, and the regulation should all 
be done by damper in the flues. 

It is sometimes necessary to take the ash pit doors 
off when the firemen persist in closing them. 

There are numerous forms of grate bars, but the 
form shown at A, Fig. 102, will give the best distribution 
of air, while that at B will come next. Either of these 
types can be made lighter, and a furnace full will cost less 
than with a straight bar. 

Bars set with the rear end raised or lowered will give 
better results than if placed level. 

Shaking grates are of service only for relieving the 
finer ash, while they are valueless for removing clinker 
and the coarser ash. The better grate is that made after 
the plan of A and put in with front and rear sections, 
so that the front or rear can be dumped separately. 

A soft patch for a boiler is a patch made to fit, and 
either lead putty with iron borings or some form of 
sheet packing put under to make a joint after the man- 
ner of making a flange joint, and the patch is screwed 
up with counter-sunk bolts. Generally the piece of boiler 

233 



Boiler Patches. 

is not cut, which leaves two thicknesses of iron, so that 
that nearest the fire, not being protected by water, is 
burned. 

A hard patch is a patch where the iron is cut out of 
the boiler, a piece fitted to cover it, holes drilled and 
riveted on, chipped and caulked and made tight. 

The soft patch is liable to get to leaking and is dan- 
gerous. The hard patch is safe, although over the fire 
it would be better to put 'in a new fire sheet entire to 
avoid a double thickness and rivets where the fire is 
intense. 

Drilled holes are better than punched, because the 
fiber of the iron is not disturbed as in punching. 

Laying out Gaskets. 

To lay out a gasket for the regular shaped manhole 
or handhole, find the length of the plate and divide it by 
three. On the line A B and with ^ as radius and with 
centers at C and D lay off the two circles. 

Should the length be 15", set the dividers at 5'' and 
lay off the two circles. Then with the center at E lay off 
the arc G, and with the center at the intersection of the 
circles at F lay off the arc H. With the same centers the 
outside circle can be laid out. This will make a regular 
ii"xi5" gasket. 

There will sometimes be found a plate, where, instead 
of the small arcs G. and H, there will be a straight line 
drawn from the same points. 

Foaming. 

Foaming is the raising of the water with the steam. 
It is caused by grease or dirt that prevents a free sep- 
aration of the steam. In one case where the engineer 

234 



Foaming Boilers. 




Fig. 103. Laying out a Gasket. 

had not kept his boiler clean there was a large amount 
of deposit. It became necessary to raise the front end 
three inches and this changed the circulation within the 
boiler and stirred up the deposit so much as to set up a 
dangerous foaming until the boiler was cleaned. 

Soap, or any substance like an alkaline boiler com- 
pound when grease is present, salt water put into fresh 
water, too little steam room or not sufficient area at top 
of water, or a strong draft of steam that causes the 
water to raise, will produce foaming. 

It is dangerous by drawing too much water from 
boiler and also by getting water into the engine which 
washes off the oil and may break something. 

Boiler Braces. 

There are two general forms of braces — the crow- 
foot, where both ends are riveted to the boiler, and the 

235 



Boiler Braces. 

angle. In the latter there are a pair of angles riveted to 
head the entire length, and the braces are held to the 
angles with a tapered pin. 




Fig. 104. Boiler braces. 



Pumps. , 

With a non-condensing engine exhausting through 
a heater it is the more economical to feed water to boiler 
with a power pump. With a condensing engine or a 
number of engines the steam pump exhausting through 
a heater not connected with the engines will be the more 
economical. 

The amount of heat converted into work in moving 
the plungers will be the same in each case, and the heat 

33000 

at I H. U. = 778 foot lbs. = X 60 = 2557 H. U. 

778 
per hour per H. P. for driving pump. 

236 



Steam Pumps. 

The main engine driving the pump and using i^^ 
lbs. of coal per H. P. will, with 9800 H. U. per lb., 

9800 
4900 

delivered into the steam, means that — 2557 := 

14,700 
12,443 H. U. per H. P. are loaded on to the condenser 
and goes out in the discharge and lost. If the pump were 
driven direct by steam there would be the same amount 
of heat converted into work, and while the amount of 
steam required to drive the pump would be more, all the 
waste heat going into the heater would heat the feed 
water and all waste heat would return to boiler. 

A steam pump is elastic and can be run at any speed 
to keep the feed regular. 

A power pump runs at one speed and must feed the 
boiler too fast and have the water shut off a portion of 
the time or there must be a relief valve to waste water 
through after it has been pumped to a high pressure. 

A duplex pump will be easier on piping, etc., than 
a single pump. 

A pump may give trouble from a leak in suction 
pipe; from a strainer becoming clogged; from the piston 
packing leaking ; from a valve breaking through, or from 
a portion of the pump filling with air. 

A leak in suction will be known from there being 
larger quantities of air. A clogged strainer from there 
not being a sufficient amount of water to fill the pump. 

An air chamber of ample size should be put in the 
suction of a pump, as shown in Fig. 105, so that the cur- 
rent of water will flow direct to it. An air chamber put on 
as indicated by the dotted lines is of no value. 

A check valve should be put in the discharge of a 

^Z7 



Air Bound Pumps. 

pump, and an air or vent valve at the top of pipe between 
it and the pump. This valve should never be less than 
Yz inch, and for large pumps much larger. 

When a pump gets air-bound it can be quickly 
relieved. A man tried to syphon spring water over a hill 
to his house, and the water would flow but a short time. 




Fig. 105. Air chamber on suction end of pump. 



He then put a chamber at the extreme high point for the 
accumulation of air with a valve to shut the chamber off 
from the pipe and means to refill it with water driving 
out the air. This helped matters, but did not insure a 
constant operation. The pipe was 2-inch. He took out 
the 2-inch on the downhill side and put in 2^ -inch, and 
had no further trouble. 

Injectors should be used where heaters are not avail- 
able and are valuable on locomotives, traction and port- 
able engines. All of the heat for driving them is 

238 



Injectors. 

returned to the boiler, but they use Hve steam for all 
this work. 

Where a heater can be used they are valuable only 
as auxiliary for a cheap substitute when the pump is 
broken. It is the better plan to install two pumps. 

The injector must have supply not to exceed iio°. 
Some will raise their water by suction 15', while others 
will raise it but a short distance. 

The principle reasons for their not working is get- 
ting hot (as they must be sufficiently cool to condense 
the steam). To be sure of this, the water supply must 
not be too warm ; it must be ample and unobstructed, and 
the strainer must be sufficient to prevent the entrance of 
anything that will clog the small ports. The check 
valves may stick, and the inner tubes will wear large and 
require removal. The better plan is to have the printed 
directions of the builder on hand if possible. Also do not 
put an ell or turn within two feet in the discharge line. 

A leaky piston can be detected by the noise of a 
leak through both strokes ; a leak through one valve 
by a noise on one end. If a pump is air bound it can 
be told by opening the vent cock in valve chamber; also 
there will be a jerky motion of the plunger, caused by 
the pump cylinder being partially filled with air. 

All pumps should have a check and stop valve in 
the discharge and a vent not less than }i". 

When the pump gets air sufficient to cause trouble 
the quickest method to get rid of it is to stop the pump, 
open the vent, and as soon as the water is out the air 
will follow. Leave the vent open for a few strokes. 

In the smaller sizes of duplex pumps, where both 
cylinders are cast together and one plate extends over 
both heads, it sometimes happens that the gasket in the 

239 



Duplex Pump Valves. 

partition between the two cylinders gives out, allowing 
the contents of one cylinder to blow through into the 
other. This may happen on either end. A duplex pump 
may sometimes refuse to work from improperly set 
valves. 

To set the valves of a duplex pump place the pistons 
at center of stroke; place the valves at center of travel. 
The valve stems have a little play in the valve and this 
play should also be set central. 

With a single cylinder pump it may refuse to work 
from the supplemental piston on top sticking from want 
of oil or from dirt, or when new from the piston valve 
expanding before the chest gets hot, or from some of the 
small parts getting stopped up. 

When high pressures are used and cold water, 
medium hard rubber should be used for water end. 
When pumping hot water, hard valves should be used 
and the pump placed below the supply. 

Heaters. 

Heaters are of different designs, one being a coil 
through which the water passes the entire length, the 
steam being on the outside. 

The claim for this type is that the water travels so 
far, all the time changing direction and all of the water 
is exposed to the heat. With this type there is no reser- 
voir and no space for deposit of sediment. 

Another type has the steam passing through the 
tubes, the water being enclosed in a shell outside the 
tubes. In some cases the tubes are expanded into two 
heads, one of the heads being constructed so as to allow 
for expansion. In some types the tubes are corrugated, 

240 



Using Waste Heat. 

and in others the tubes are bent into U shape to allow 
for expansion. 

This type has a reservoir and a space for deposit for 
sediment but has the drawback where the shells are made 
from rolled metal that the metal will pit at lower portion 
of shell where the water is simply warm and no cir- 
culation. 

In the open type the water is sprayed over and 
brought in direct contact with the steam. 

This type requires watchfulness, will get the water 
nearly as hot as the steam, will deposit a large per cent, 
of the impurities in the water; but care is necessary all 
of the time to prevent the oil getting into the boilers. 



Economizers. 

An economizer is composed of cast iron tubes forced 
into headers, these headers connected together. Outside 
these tubes are scrapers being continually moved up and 
down, thus keeping the surface clean from the soot. 
These economizers are placed in flue from boiler to 
stack and absorb a portion of the heat from the flue gases. 

From whatever source the feed water absorbs waste 
heat, for every io° the economy in fuel will be practically 
1%. A good heater with suflicient exhaust at pressure 
of the atmosphere will heat the feed water to 200 to 
210°. An economizer will add about 100° more. 

The effect of an economizer in a flue is to reduce 
the temperature of the flue gases, and as the tempera- 
ture is reduced the draft will be reduced so that where 
economizers are used the chimney should be higher. 

241 



Steam Gauge. 

The spring in a steam gauge is a flat tube and is 
constructed on the principle that "a. thin elliptical metal 
tube if bent into a coil will seek to coil or uncoil itself as 
subjected to external or internal pressure." A steam 
gauge should have a coil, bend or some provision to 
retain water directly under it, so that steam or heat shall 
be kept from the spring, as heat would expand it and 
show false. 

The spring is connected to pointer by lever and 
gears. The spring should move but a short distance, as 
there is a tendency for these tubes to "set" when their 
traverse is long, and when there comes a permanent ''set" 
a new spring and dial is required. 

Rope and Pulleys. 

When a rope is put over one pulley the weight will 
be raised at the same speed as the power at the other end, 
and power and weight will be equal except the friction. 

When another pulley is added the speed of the 
weight or resistance will be one-half that of the power 
applied and double the weight can be moved at j/2 the 
former speed, and for every pulley added the speed will 
be reduced and greater resistance overcome. This is the 
"law of movable pulleys." The same law applies to the 
lever and wedge. 

Safety Valves. 

To find weight to put on safety valve lever, let A 
represent area X pressure; 1 represent " length of lever 
from fulcrum to center of valve ; L, length of lever from 
fulcrum to weight; W, weight. 

242 



Safety Valve Calculations. 
aXl 



Then W = 



L 
This rule does not include the weight of lever and 
valve and would slightly overload the valve. 

Let L = length of lever from fulcrum to weight. 
L' =: length of lever from fulcrum to center of 
valve. 



(5 



8' 



34-' 



20" > 



r 90 lbs p. 




Fig. io6. Safety valve calculations. 

L" = length of lever from fulcrum to center of 

gravity. 
W = weight in pounds, 
w = weight of lever, 
w' = weight of valve, 
a = area of valve, 
p = pressure of steam. 

a X p — ( L' + ^ ) X L' 

1. Then, W = 

L 

2. Weight of a cubic inch of cast iron is .2607. 

Cubic inch of wrought iron, .2816. 
Let L ^ length of lever from fulcrum to weight 34". 
L' := length of lever from fulcrum to center of 

valve 8". 
L" =i length of lever from fulcrum to center of 
gravity 20". 

243 



How It Is Done. 

w = weight of lever, lo lbs. 

w' = weight of valve, 6 lbs. 

a = area of valve, 12^ lbs. 

p = pressure in boiler, 90 lbs. 

W = weight to be found. 
The center of gravity of lever is the point where 
it would balance and is near the center depending upon 
the amount of taper. 

I2J4 X90— (^^^ + 6) X8 

Then 

34 

200 

10 X 20 = — = 25 + 6 = 31 

8 

90 

12^ 



1080 
45 

1 125 
31 

1094 
8 



34)8752(257 lbs. weight 
68 



195 
170 



252 

257 J. W. Hill. 

244 



Pop Valves. 

To change the pressure on spring safety valves, 
known as "pop" valves, remove the lock-up cap and 
slacken check nut. 

To increase the pressure, turn the compression to 
the left, or down, about one square of the nut for each five 
pounds pressure. Then secure the check nut and let the 
valve blow. Note if the pressure is reduced too much 
after the valve "pops." 

A "pop" valve is made with the regular conical valve 
and outside of this is a lip with sharp edge nearly seating 
on a movable plate. When the valve commences to blow 
a small amount will pass out under this lip, but as the 
amount increases it is retained by this lip and the extra 
pressure under the increased area causes the valve to 
"pop" or open fully at once. 

From the outside case is a place to reach the plate, 
or movable ring, generally by removing a plug. After 
screwing down on the valve and the pressure is reduced 
too much, insert a pointed instrument and turn this mov- 
able ring down three or four notches and let it blow, and 
repeat until the seating is right. If it seats quickly and 
the pressure rises too much before it "pops," screw the 
ring in the opposite direction. 

Should it be necessary to reduce the pressure, pro- 
ceed in the opposite manner. 



Fly Wheels. 

In fly wheel rims, for a given material there is a 
definite speed at which disruption will occur, regardless 
of the amount of material used. 

245 



Fly Wheel Problems. 

This is expressed by the following formula : 

V = 1.6 V^^ Ir in which V is the velocity of rim in 
feet per second at which disruption will occur, w the 
weight of a cubic inch of material used; and s the tensile 
strength of one square inch. 

The formula means that if we divide the tensile 
strength of the material by its weight per cubic inch, 
extract the square root of the quotient and then multiply 
by 1.6 the result will be the speed in feet per second. 

Instead of the ultimate strength let us take the safe 
strength. 

Cast iron in large castings could be depended upon 
for a tensile strength of 10,000 lbs., and with a factor of 
safety of 10 would give us 1000 lbs. per square inch. The 
weight of a cubic inch of cast iron is .26 of a lb., so that 
we have for solid cast iron rims V = 1.6 V^ 
= 100 feet per second. 

This corresponds to 1.15 miles per minute. There 
will probably be some shrinkage strains, so that it is con- 
sidered good practice not to run them faster than a mile 
a minute. 

With jointed rims and joints between the arms it is 
not considered possible to make a joint. to exceed one- 
fourth the strength of a solid rim. 

With steel having a tensile strength of 60,000 lbs., 
or a safe strength of 6000 and weighing .28 lbs. per cubic 
inch, we have V = 1.6 V"^ ^^146 feet per second, or 
1.66 miles per minute. 

Hard maple has a tensile strength of 10,500 lbs. It 
is made up in segments so that a factor of safety of 20 is 
taken, and the weight is .0283 per cubic inch. V = 1.6 
V^f = 1-54 ft. per second, or 1.75 miles per minute. 

W. H. BOEHM. 

246 



Right Angle Triangle. 

When it is necessary to determine a right angle a 
distance can be measured off in one direction of 6 feet 
and another of 8 feet, and from these two points the dis- 
tance should be lo feet. 




8X8=6^ 
6X6=36 
64^+36^100 

yFoo= lO 

Fig. 107. Right angle triangle. 

The cut shows the dimensions and method of finding 
the third side. Multiply each of the two sides by them- 
selves, add the products together and extract the square 
root. 

Facts About Steam. 

Flow of steam in pipes should not exceed 100 ft. per 
second, or 6000 ft. per minute. 

At sea level fresh water boils at 212°. For each 
degree less estimate the elevation at 550 ft. 

247 



Cylinder Pressure. 

Discharge of steam through pipes. Trial made at 
Novelty Iron Works. H. P. at 80 lbs. steam. 

i" pipe 140 H. P. 
i^" " 214 " 



iy2 



315 

560 

875 



Cylinder Pressure. 

To find average mean pressure in cylinder by cal- 
culation when cut-off is known : 

Divide initial pressure by ratio of expansion and 
multiply by hyperbolic logarithm increased by i. 

With 100 pounds initial pressure and cutting off at 
54 of the stroke, the ratio will be 4 and the hyperbolic 
logarithm 1.386. 

100 
= 25 1.386 + I = 2.386. 



2.386 X 25 = 59.65 lbs., mean effective pressure. 

The above does not take account of the loss from back 
pressure, compression, lowering of steam line or rounded 
corner at release, so that an indicator card would shov/ 
a result somewhat less. 

The following are tables showing points of cutting 
off at 8ths and loths with ratio of expansion and hyper- 
bolic logarithms : 

Point of cutting off [ \ \ \ f 

Ratio of expansion 8 j4 2 . 66 

Hyperbolic Logarithms. . .12.079J 1.38610. 978 



8 8 8 

2 1,6 1.33 

0.693I0. 4700. 285 



1. 14 
0.I3I 



Point of cutting oif J^ y-j 

Ratio of expansion 10 5 

Hyperbolic Logarithms. . . 2.3031.609 



_3_ 
10 

3.33 

1.203 



_4_ 
10 

0.916 



J>_ 
10 

1.66 



10 
1.42 

0.5070.351 



1 

1-25 

0.223 



248 



Mean Effective Pressures. 



Another table is often convenient, 
cylinder when cutting off at 



Mean pressure in 



'A J 


strok 


e = boi 


ler pressure 


X 


.597 


Vz 




— * 




X 


.670 


Vs 




— * 




X 


•743 


V2 




:= 




X 


.847 


Vs 




— * 




X 


.919 


Vz 




= 




X 


•937 


Va 




= 




X 


.966 


^8 




= 




X 


.992 



Buell gives the rule for finding terminal pressure in 
the cylinder as : "The terminal pressure of steam in a 
cylinder is the product of the pressure at cut-off multi- 
plied by cut-off. 

95 lbs. steam X .25 cut-off = 23.75, terminal pres- 
sure. 

POINTS OF CUTTING OFF. 



Initial 


1 


1 


1 


1 


3 


1 


5 


3 


Pressure 


8" 


5 


4 


3 


^ 


2 


8 


4: 


10 


3.8 


5-2 


5.9 


6.6 


7-4 


8.4 


9.1 


9.6 


15 


5.7 


7.8 


8.9 


10.4 


II. I 


12.7 


13.7 


14.4 


20 


7.6 


10.4 


II. 9 


13.6 


14.8 


16.9 


18.3 


19.2 


25 


9-5 


13.0 


14-9 


17.5 


18.5 


21. 1 


22 9 


24.1 


30 


11-5 


15.6 


17.9 


20,9 


22.2 


25-4 


27-5 


28.9 


35 


13.4 


18.2 


20.8 


24.4 


25-9 


29.6 


32.1 


33-8 


40 


15.4 


20.8 


23.8 


27.9 


29.6 


33.8 


36.7 


37-5 


45 


17.3 


23.4 


26.8 


31.4 


33.3 


38.1 


41-3 


43.4 


50 


19.2 


26.0 


29.8 


34.9 


37.0 


42 3 


45-9 


48.2 


55 


21.2 


28.7 


32.8 


38.4 


40.8 


46.5 


50.5 


53-7 


60 


. 23.1 


31. 1 


35.7 


41.9 


44-5 


50.7 


55-1 


57-8 


65 


25 


33-9 


38.7 


45.4 


48.9 


54-0 


59-7 


62.4 


70 


26.9 


36.5 


41.7 


48.9 


52.4 


59-2 


64-3 


67.4 


75 


28.8 


39-1 


44-7 


52.4 


55.6 


63-4 


68.9 


72.5 


80 


30.8 


41.7 


47.7 


55.9 


59-3 


67.7 


73-5 


77.1 


85 


32.7 


44.3 


50.7 


59.4 


63.0 


71.9 


78.0 


81.9 


90 


34.6 


46 9 


53.6 


62.9 


66 7 


76.1 


82.6 


86.7 


95 


36.6 


49.5 


56.6 


66.4 


70.8 


80.4 


87.0 


91.2 


100 


38.4 


52.1 


59-6 


69.9 


74.1 


84.6 


91.8 


96.3 


105 


40.4 


54.7 


62.6 


73.4 


77.8 


88 8 


96.4 


lOI.I 


no 


42.5 


57.4 


65.5. 


76.4 


81.5 


93.1 


lOI.O 


106,0 


120 


46.1 


63-4 


71-5 


83.9 


89.4 


105.5 


no. 2 


115. 2 


130 


50.0 


67.8 


77.5 


90.9 


95.3 


IIO.O 


119.1 


125.4 


140 


53.8 


■78.0 


83.5 


97.9 


103.8 


118. 5 


128.6 


135.9 



249 



About Heat Units. 

Average pressure from rule : — Divide the initial pres- 
sure by ratio of expansion and multiply quotient by the 
hyperbolic Logarithm increased by i 

Loss of Heat. 

To find loss in the gas going up chimney in heat 
units : 

■ Weight of flue gas X specific heat X temperature 
above boiler room = heat units. 

The weight of air theoretically necessary for the com- 
bustion of one pound carbon is 12 lbs, but the usual 
amount in practice where draft is used is 24 lbs. 

The specific heat of air compared with water is .238. 

If temperature of gas leaving boiler is 500° and tem- 
perature of boiler room 80°, then the coal has put 420° 
heat units into 24 lbs. air for each lb. of coal. 

24 lbs. air X .238 ^ 5.732. This multiplied by 420 
= 2407.44 heat units. 

Should we wish to determine the amount of water 
it would evaporate from 212° to steam at 212° we divide 
the heat units by 966. This gives us 2.48 lbs. of water. 
This is the heat lost in producing draft, or the heat lost 
in chimney. 

It is at this point that the only hope lies in economy 
in the use of powdered fuel. 

With the fuel powdered fine and the air thoroughly 
mixed and blown in it should require but the theoretic 
amount of air which would save one-half the above loss. 
There is another small loss that might be saved. 

With draft in the flue at the end of the boiler, either 
by chimney or by induced draft with exhaust fan, there 
will be air drawn in through the brick work and through 
every crack and crevice and has a cooling effect, 

250 



Forced Draft. 

Air put in by a blower so that the pressure inside 
of the furnace shall be equal to that of the external air 
will prevent any air coming in except that which goes 
through the fuel. 

Boiler Tests. 

When making a boiler test and it is desired to find 
what the evaporation is "from and at 212°," or from 212° 
of feed water to steam at same temperature, divide the 
heat units put in by the coal by 966°, which is the latent 
heat of steam at the pressure of the atmosphere. 

Suppose the pressure was 100 lbs. and temperature 
of feed 96°. The total heat units, taken from Porter's 
tables, of icmd lbs. steam 1216.9. The temperature in feed 
was 96°. 

1216.9 — 96 = 1 120.9 "^ 966 = 1. 164. 

This is called the factor of equivalent evaporation. 
Multiplying the actual evaporation by this factor will give 
what the evaporation would have been "from and at 
212°." If the evaporation had been 8.6 lbs. of water, 
then 8.6 X 1.164 = 10.01. 

If it is desired to find the H. P., which is recog- 
nized as 30 lbs. of water, evaporated per hour from feed 
at 100° to steam at 70 lbs. pressure. 

Find the factor from the above figures which are at 
70 lbs. 1210. 32 H. U. — 100° = 1 1 10.32 4- 966 = 
1. 150. 

The factor of equivalent evaporation, 1.164 multi- 
plied by the actual amount evaporated per hour and 
divided by the factor of 100° feed to steam at 70 lbs., 
viz.: 1.50 will give the standard H. P. 

If the actual evaporation per hour had been 10,000 
lbs. of water from 96° of feed water and 100 lbs. pres- 

251 



Electrical Terms and Phrases. 

sure, then 1.164 X 10,000 -^ 1.150 = 10,121.73. This 
number divided by 30, which is 30 lbs. of water per hour ; 
10,121.73 -^ 30 = 337.37 H. P. with feed at 100° to steam 
at 70 lbs. pressure. 

Piston Speed and Horse Power. 

Piston speed of engine X area of piston X M. E. P. 
H- 33.000 = H. P. 

Piston speed of engine X area of piston X M. E. P. 
— 44,236 = Kilowatts. 

Electrical Terms. 

In measuring the electric current there is one thing 
that puzzles the beginner. He cannot understand why 
the dynamo is not doing work when the switches are 
thrown out and wonders where the current goes. 

He is told that the current must be calculated the 
same as water and the amperes as volume, and that 
throwing out a switch is the same as shutting off a valve. 
He realizes that shutting off a valve means raising the 
pressure and this is what puzzles him. 

If we look upon the electric current as a volume of 
air from a fan blower, that when a gate is shut and a 
portion or all of the air is shut off that none is being 
moved and that the fan is simply turning in the case it 
can be better understood. 

If it is desired to find the K. W. at switch board with 
10% loss, -^ 48,659 K. W. X 1.34 = H. P. 

Allowing for 10% loss, K. W. X 147 = H. P. 

A volt is the measure of electric pressure and corre- 
sponds to pounds pressure in hydraulics. 

An ampere is the measure of electric quantity and 
corresponds to gallons, etc., in hydraulics. 

252 



Electrical Notes. 

Volts X amperes gives the watts which correspond 
to energy, 446 of which = i horsepower. 

The number of watts divided by 446 = horsepower. 

An Ohm is the measure of electric resistance in the 
wire and corresponds to friction in pipes. 

A copper wire i-io" area and i' long has a resist- 
ance of 10.6 ohms. 

In determining the size of wire the entire circuit, 
both the outgoing and the return must be taken into 
account. 

A 16 candle-power lamp at no volts requires 3^ 
watts per candle power or 56 watts. 

When estimating the size of wire the first thing to 
be taken into account is the ''drop" or loss in voltage that 
can be allowed. 

For lighting there should be a drop of but 2 volts 
on a 1 10 volt service, or 2 per cent. 

For some kinds of power service there can be a loss 
of 5 %. At 500 volts this would mean a drop of 25 volts, 
and at 10% it would mean 50 volts. The latter is allowed 
on railway work. 

In three phase work the volume of current in each 
wire, or terminal, will be 58% of total. 

If we have a three phase generator of a capacity of 
750 K. W. and generating current under 12,000 volts pres- 
sure, the amperes in each terminal will be about 37. 

750 K. W. is 750,000 watts. 

750,000 -:- 12,00 = 62.5 amperes. 

58% of 62.5 = 36.25 amperes per terminal and the 
volume of current that determines the size of each wire. 

If we wish to supply 50 amp. 100 feet distant we 
have a circuit of 200 feet. If the voltage is no and we 

253 



Hardened Copper. 

want a drop of but 2 volts we proceed as follows : 

resistance X amp. X distance 

= circular mils, or 



volts loss 

10.6 X 50 X 200 

= 53,000 circular mils. 

We look at a table of circular mils and find this cor- 
responds to No. 2 wire, as, if there is no number of wire 
that corresponds, the larger number should be taken. 

This number is from Brown's & Sharp's gauge. 

Brown & Sharp's gauge differs from all others in 
that all the numbers have a direct relation to each other. 
If we have a wire and wish to get one just double the 
area we count up three of the numbers. A No. 000 wire 
has just double the area of No. i. No. 4 is one-half the 
area of No. i. No. 10 is half the area of No. 7. 



Hardened Copper. 

Receipt for hardened copper-Blue clay, borax, pot- 
ash and straw, equal parts; crush fine, mix thoroughly 
together and let it remain three days preparatory to use. 
To I lb, copper, when melted, take i lb. 8 oz. of the mix- 
ture ; stir well in and let it remain one hour. Remove the 
slag, then put in a small piece of glass the size of Yi oz. 
bottle with a teaspoonful of borax; stir well, let it remain 
15 minutes and pour. 

A patent for the above was granted to a woman. This 
woman was not a metallurgist, but a clairvoyant, and her 
story was that during a trance an old Egyptian appeared 
to her and gave her the above receipt. 

254 



Estimating Water Power. 

Copper made from the above will be 99% copper and 
the stuff put into the copper comes out in the form of 
slag. 

From the above receipt copper drills have been made 
that would drill granite. For bearings it should be made 
so that it will work about like cast-iron. 

A few years since a man in Pennsylvania designed 
a compound metal having about 85% of copper that could 
be made so hard that a hatchet made from it will cut nails. 

It was suggested by the writer that a trial be made to 
show its shot resisting qualities compared with steel. 

A ball from a Mauser rifle that would perforate a 
Yz" steel boiler plate would only penetrate the copper 
plate y^". 

Points of compass by a watch point the hour hand 
of the watch to the sun and half w:ay between that point 
and 12 is due south when north of the equator. 

When estimating water power at 75% efficiency, a 
flow of 705 cubic feet of water per minute equals i H. P. 
for each i foot fall. 

Other Metals. 

Regarding copper as a metal for journals, a maker 
of seamless tubes had the following experience : 

When drawing seamless tubes, the cast shell is put 
on an arbor and pushed through a die and the friction on 
the arbor is enormous. He had trouble in getting a lubri- 
cant for his arbors that would prevent the brass clinging 
and cutting the arbor. He noticed that he had no trouble 
with the copper tubes, so he would draw a copper tube, 
then three or four brass tubes, then a copper and so on 
and then he had no trouble with the brass tubes. It was 

25s 



An Expanding Metal. 

shown that a sufficient film of copper was left on the arbor 
to lubricate the following brass tubes. 

Metal that will expand in cooling : 

9 parts lead. 

2 " antimony. 

I " bismuth. 

Examination Questions. 

Some time ago the owners of a large building erect- 
ed in New York City put in an elaborate steam-heating 
and elevator machinery plant, and they required a good 
engineer to take charge. They were prepared to pay good 
salary to a suitable man, and this fact becoming known, a 
host of applicants became candidates for the place. As a 
means of helping to indicate what man would best suit 
the position, the candidates were required to take part in 
a competitive examination, the subjoined being the ques- 
tions submitted. Few engineers would be able to answer 
half of the questions, but the publication of them will give 
engineers an idea of the range of knowledge required by 
those favoring the system of appointment through merit 
alone, and they may serve as a guide to study : 

What is your name? 

Your age, and where born? 

Are you a machinist ? 

Where were you apprenticed, and number of years 
you worked at the trade? 

What is steam? 

What are the properties of steam? 

At what temperature does water boil at sea level? 

What is the volume of steam from i cubic inch of 
water ? 

256 



Examination Questions. 

What is the temperature of steam, and volume at i 
pound above atmospheric pressure? 

What is the temperature of steam at 60 pounds above 
atmospheric pressure? 

What is the proper course to pursue should the water 
be found low in the boiler? 

If a boiler 72" diameter had the tubes to within 30" 
of the top of the boiler and allowing 2" around the shell 
and top of the tubes did not call for braces, what would 
be the area to be braced? 

What form of braces are commonly used ? 

If a boiler ^2!' diameter were filled with water to 
within 18" of the top, what would be the area of that por- 
tion filled with steam? 

What is the largest area allowed between braces ? 

What types of engines are you familiar with? 

What is a slide valve? 

What is a piston valve? 

What are Corliss valves ? 

What is an eccentric ? 

How much throw should an eccentric have ? - 

How should an eccentric be set ? 

What is lap ? 

What is lead ? 

What is compression? 

Can this be carried too far ? 

How would you place an engine on the exact center ? 

How would you set a slide valve ? 

How would you set Corliss valves with single ec- 
centric ? 

How with a double? 

What causes an engine to pound ? 

How can it be remedied? 

257 



Examination Questions. 

What causes an engine to heat? 
What are some of the remedies? 

How would you determine the travel of a piston so 
it should be the same distance from both ends of the 

« 

cylinder ? 

Upon what does the efficiency of an engine depend ? 

What is the effect of too slow a piston speed ? 

What is the eiTect of too high a rotative speed ? 

What is the effect of clearance ? 

What relation does a four-valve engine bear to 
clearance ? 

When re-setting the steam valves on a Corliss engine 
what is there to look after in relation to the governor? 

In what way is a vacuum of benefit to an engine ? 

What is a heater? 

In what way is a heater of benefit? 

How many types are there? 

What is the object of a surface condenser? 

Can oil be separated from the exhaust steam? 

What is an economizer? 

What are the important points about piping? 

What is the cause of water hammer ? 

Should a pipe incline towards the boiler or towards 
engine ? Why ? 

What is the expansion of a pipe 300' long with 150 
lbs. steam ? 

How can this expansion be taken care of ? 

What is the important point about traps ? 

What is sensible heat? 

What is the British unit of heat? 

What is the mechanical equivalent of heat? 

What is the equivalent of a horse-power? 

What is the horse-power of an engine — cylinder, 

258 



Examination Questions. 

I2"xi8"; initial pressure, 80 pounds per square inch; cut- 
off, y\. stroke; revolutions, 100 per minute? 

If the initial pressure be 80 pounds per square inch, 
and cut-off ^ stroke, what will be the terminal pressure? 

What will be the point of cut-off to reduce the termi- 
nal to atmospheric pressure? 

Have you ever used the indicator? 

And whose make ? 

Draw an indicator diagram, and compute the horse- 
power from it, of an engine I4"x22", initial pressure 75 
pounds, cut-off stroke, revolutions 80 per minute. 

Have you had any experience with piston valves ? 

State what other valves you are familiar with, and 
give a sketch of them. 

What is lap and lead? 

What is pre-release? 

Of what benefit is compression? 

What is the tensile strength of iron? 

And of steel ? 

What is the safe working pressure per square inch 
of a tubular boiler 54" diameter, plates 5-16" thick? 

What pressure will be necessary to burst an iron 
boiler 30" diameter, 5-16" thick, the diameter and pitch of 
rivets so they will shear off when the plates have reached 
the limits of their tensile strength? 

Give a sketch of what you consider the best boiler 
stay. 

And how a boiler should be stayed. 

What grate surface do you allow in square feet per 
horse-power ? 

What is a fair allowance of heating surface per 
horse-power ? 

How much water will i pound of coal evaporate? 

259 



Examination Questions. 

How much coal would be a fair average per horse- 
power per hour? 

How much water evaporated per horse-power per 
hour? 

Give a rule for computing the diameter of a safety 
valve for a given boiler. 

Where is the best place to introduce the feed water 
in a boiler? 

Where should the blow-off pipe be situated ? 

When is the best time to remove clinkers from the 
fire-brick walls with the least injury to the brick? 

Where should the connections be made in a boiler 
for the attachment of steam and water gauges? 

Where should the steam and water gauges be situ- 
ated? 

What is your opinion as to the use of Croton water 
in boilers? 

State your objections, if any? 

What different make of steam gauges are you fa- 
miliar with? 

State maker's name, and draw a vertical section of 
them. 

Have you had an experience in steam heating? 

State where. 

Would it be economy to use the exhaust steam for 
heating purposes, if it should throw a pressure of 2 
pounds per square inch on piston? 

What weight is required for a safety valve 4" diame- 
ter, total length of lever 36", from fulcrum to valve 4", 
boiler pressure 80 pounds per square inch, weight of valve 
and connections 12 pounds? 

The diameter being i, what is the area? 

260 



Examination Questions. 

What is the square of 12? 

What is the cubical capacity of a cyhnder 4'xio'? 

What is the pressure per square inch of a column of 
water 100' high? 

And at what height will it support a column of mer- 
cury? 

What is a soft patch on a boiler? What is a hard 
patch ? 

Which is to be preferred, and why? Which is bet- 
ter, drilled or punched holes? Why? 

How should a boiler be cooled oft? How should 
the water in a boiler be changed? 

What is the effect of leaving the doors and damper 
shut ? 

What is foaming? 

What are the causes of foaming? How are boilers 
injured by it? 

How are engines? 

How often should water gauges and gauge glasses 
be blown out? 

How would you change the point of blowing off with 
a spring or "pop" valve? 

What pumps are you familiar with? 

How would you set the valves for a duplex pump ? 

What are the causes of a pump not working? 

How remedied? 

What are the causes for an injector not working? 

What is a vacuum? 

Where is a vacuum used? How would you de- 
termine the amount of water for a condenser ? 

How would you determine the amount of water a 
boiler required ? 

How would you determine the size of pump for it? 

261 



About Chimneys. 

How much grate area should there be per horse- 
power of boiler? 

How much heating surface? 

What are the causes that lead to boiler explosions ? 

What is external corrosion? 

What is internal corrosion or pitting ? 

What are the causes ? 

What is grooving and cause? 

When are explosions the most destructive? 

Upon what does the effciency of the boiler depend? 

Stability of Chimneys. 

Stability, or power to withstand the over-turning 
force of the highest winds, requires a proportionate rela- 
tion between the weight, height, breadth of base, and ex- 
posed area of the chimney. This relation is expressed in 
the quotation 

dh^ 

C == W, 

b 
in which d= the average breadth of the shaft ; h = its 
height; b = the breadth of base, — all in feet; W = 
weight of chimney in lbs., and C = a co-efficienf of wind 
pressure per square foot of area. This varies with the 
cross-section of the chimney, and ^ 56 for a square, 35 
for an octagon, and 28 for a round chimney. Thus a 
square chimney of average breadth of 8 feet, 10 feet wide 
at base and 100 feet high, would require to weigh 56 x 8 
X 100 X 10 = 448,000 lbs., to withstand any gale likely to 
be experienced. Brickwork weighs from 100 to 130 lbs. 
per cubic foot, hence such a chimney must average 13 
inches thick to be safe. A round stack could weigh half 
as much, or have less base. 

262 



Areas and Circumferences of Circles 
From I -64th to 100. 



Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


^V 


.000192 


.04909 


61 


35.7848 


21.2058 


z\ 


.000767 


.09818 


7 


38.4846 


21.9912 


tV 


.003068 


.19635 


I 


41.2826 


22.7766 


i 


.012272 


.3927 


I 


44.1787 


23.562 


x\ 


.027612 


.589 


1 


47.1731 


24.3474 


i 


.049087 


.7854 


8 


50.2656 


25.1328 


5 
y y 


.076699 


.98175 


I 


53.4563 


25.9182 


f 


.110447 


1.1781 


I 


56.7451 


26.7036 


t\ 


.15033 


1.37445 


1 


60.1322 


27.489 


\ 


.19635 


1.5708 


9 


63.6174 


28.2744 


T*7 


.248505 


1.76715 


\ 


67.2008 


29.0598 


J. J 

f 


.306796 


1.9635 


I 


70.8823 


29.8452 


\\ 


.371224 


2.15985 


3 

4 


74.6621 


30.6306 


X 

f 


.441787 


2.3562 


10 


78.54 


31.416 




.518487 


2.55255 


1 


82.5161 


32.2014 


i. 3 

1 


.601322 


2.7489 


I 


86.5903 


32.98G8 


/^ 


.090292 


2.94525 


1 


90.7628 


33.7722 


.7854 


3.1416 


11 


95.0334 


34.5576 


1 


1.2272 


3.927 


I 


99=4022 


35.343 


^ 


1.7671 


4.7124 


1 


103.8G91 


36.1284 


i 


2.4053 


5.4978 




108.4343 


36.9138 


2 


3.1416 


6.2832 


12* 


113.098 


37.6992 


i 


3.9761 


7.0686 


1 


117.859 


38.4846 


i 


4.9087 


7.854 


I 


122.719 


39.27 




5.9396 


8.6384 




127.677 


40.0554 


3 


7.0686 


9.4248 


13^ 


132.733 


40.8408 


J 


8.2958 


10.2102 


I 


137.887 


41.6262 


1 


9.6211 


10.9956 


I 


143.139 


42.4116 




11.0447 


11.781 




148.49 


43.197 


4"^ 


12.5664 


12.5664 


14 


153.938 


43.9824 


1 


14.1863 


13.3518 


I 


159.485 


44.7678 




15.9043 


14.1372 


I 


165.13 


45.5532 




17.7206 


14.9226 


3 

4 


170.874 


46.3386 


5^ 


19.635 


15.708 


15 


176.715 


47.124 


1 


21.6476 


16.4934 


1 


182.655 


47.9094 


I 


23.7583 


17.2788 


1 


188.692 


48.6948 


1 


25.9673 


18.0642 




194.828 


49.4802 


6 


28.2744 


18.8496 


16^ 


201.062 


50.2056 


1 


30.6797 


19.635 


i 


207.395 


51.051 


i 


33.1831 


20.4204 


I 


213.825 


51.8364 



263 



Areas and Circumferences of Circles 
{Continued), 



Diam. 


Area. 


Circtim. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


161 


220.354 


52.6218 


28 


615.754 


87.9648 


17 


226.981 


53.4072 


J 


626.798 


88.7502 


I 


233.706 


54.1926 


I 


637.941 


89.5356 


I 


240.529 


54.978 


I 


649.182 


90.321 


1 


247.45 


55.7634 


29 


660.521 


91.1064 


18 


254.47 


56.5488 


I 


671.959 


91.8918 


\ 


261.587 


57.3342 


I 


683.494 


92.6772 


I 


268.803 


58.1196 


I 


695.128 


93.4626 


% 


276.117 


58.905 


30 


706.86 


94.248 


19 


283.529 


59.6904 


I 


718.69 


95.0334 


I 


291.04 


60.4758 


I 


730.618 


95.8188 


I 


298.648 


61.2612 


% 


742.645 


96.6042 


*3 


306.355 


62.0466 


31 


754.769 


97.3896 


20 


314.16 


62.832 


\ 


766.992 


98.175 


I 


322.063 


63.6174 


h 


779.313 


98.9604 


I 


330.064 


64.4028 


i 


791.732 


99.7458 


I 


338.164 


65.1882 


32 


804.25 


100.5312 


21 


346.361 


65.973G 


I 


816.865 


101.3166 


\ 


354.657 


66.759 


h 


829.579 


102.102 


i 


363.051 


_ 67.5444 




842.391 


102.8874 


i 


371.543 


68.3298 


33 


855.301 


103.673 


22 


380.134 


69.1152 


i 


868.309 


104.458 


\ 


388.822 


69.900G 


i 


881.415 


105.244 


I 


397.609 


70.686 




894.62 


106.029 


1 


406.494 


71.4714 


34 


907.922 


106.814 


23 


415.477 


72.2568 


I 


921.323 


107.6 


\ 


424.558 


73.0422 


h 


934.822 


108.385 


I 


433.737 


73.8276 


I 


948.42 


109.171 


1 


443.015 


74.613 


35 


962.115 


109.956 


24 


452.39 


"75.3984 


I 


975.909 


110.741 


I 


461.864 


76.1838 


I 


989.8 


111.527 


I 


471.436 


76.9692 




1003.79 


112.312 


i 


481.107 


77.7546 


36 


1017.878 


113.088 


25 


490.875 


78.54 


\ 


1032.065 


113.883 


\ 


500.742 


79.3254 


1 


1046.349 


114. 6C8 


h 


510.706 


80.1108 




1060.732 


115.454 


1 


520.769 


80.8962 


37' 


1075.213 


116.239 


26 


530.93 


81.6816 


I 


1089.792 


117.025 


\ 


541.19 


82.467 


I 


1104.469 


117.81 


I 


551.547 


83.2524 




1119.244 


118.595 


1 


562.003 


84.0378 


38 


1134.118 


119.381 


27 


572.557 


84.8232 


J 


1149.089 


120.166 


i 


583.209 


85.6086 


1 


1164.159 


120.952 


h 


593.959 


86.394 


% 


1179.327 


121.737 




604.807 


87.1794 


39 


1194.593 


122.522 



264. 



Areas and Circumferences of Circles 
(Continued) , 



Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


33i 


1209.958 


123.308 


50h 


2002.97 


158.651 


h 


1225.42 


124.093 


1 


2022.85 


159.436 




1240.981 


124.879 


51 


2042.83 


160.222 


40 


1256.64 


125.664 


J 


2062.9 


161.007 


1 


1272.397 


126.449 


h 


2083.08 


161.792 


h 


1288.252 


127.235 


I 


2103.35 


162.578 




1304.206 


128.02 


52 


2123.72 


163.363 


41 


1320.257 


128.806 


\ 


2144.19 


164.149 


I 


1336.407 


129.591 


I 


2164.76 


164.934 


i 


1352.655 


130.376 


i 


2185.42 


165.719 


i 


1339.001 


131.162 


53 


2206.19 


166.505 


42 


1335.45 


131.947 


\ 


2227.05 


167.29 


I 


1401.99 


132.733 


I 


2248.01 


168.076 


h 


1418.63 


133.518 


1 


2269.07 


168.861 


i 


1435.37 


134.303 


54 


2290.23 


169.646 


43 


1452.2 


135.089 


I 


2311.48 


170.432 


1 


1469.14 


135.874 


I 


2332.83 


171.217 


i 


1486.17 


138.66 




2354.29 


172.003 


i 


1503.3 


137.445 


55 


2375.83 


172.788 


44 


1520.53 


133.23 


\ 


2397.48 


173.573 


I 


1537.86 


139.016 


I 


2419.23 


174.359 


i 


1555.29 


139.801 


% 


2441.07 


175.144 


i 


1572.81 


140.587 


56 


2463.01 


175.93 


45 


1590.43 


141 . 372 


I 


2485.05 


176.715 


1 


1608.16 


142.157 


h 


2507.19 


177.5 


h 


1625.97 


142.943 


3 

4 


2529.43 


178.286 




1643.89 


143.728 


57 


2551.76 


179.071 


46 


1661.91 


144.514 


I 


2574.2 


179.857 


1 


1680.02 


145.299 




2596.73 


180.642 


^ 


1698.23 


146.084 


1 


2619.36 


181.427 


1 


1716.54 


146,87 


58 


2642.09 


182.213 


47 


1734.95 


147.655 


i 


2664.91 


182.998 


1 


1753.45 


148 441 


I 


2687.84 


183.784 


i 


1772.06 


149.226 


1 


2710.86 


184. 5C9 




1790.70 


150.011 


59 


2733.98 


185.354 


48 


1809 . 56 


150.797 


I 


2757.2 


186.14 


4 


1828.46 


151.582 


h 


2780.51 


186.925 


h 


1847.46 


152.368 




2803.93 


187.711 


i 


1866.55 


153.153 


60 


2827.44 


188.496 


49 


1885.75 


153.938 


I 


2851.05 


189.281 


1 


1905.04 


154.724 


1 


2874.76 


190.067 


1 


1924.43 


155.509 




2898.57 


190.852 




1943.91 


156.295 


61^ 


2922.47 


191.638 


50 


1963.5 


157.08 


1 


2946.48 


192.423 


J 


1983.18 


157.865 


h 


2970.58 


193,20^ 



2165 



Areas and Circumferences of Circles 
(Continued). 



Diam. 



Area. 



611 
62 
I 



63 



64 



65 



66 



67 



68 



69 



70 



71 



72 



2994.78 
3019.08 
3043.47 
3067.97 
3092.56 
3117.25 
3142.04 
3166.93 
3191.91 
3217. 
3242.18 
3267.46 
.3292.84 
3318.31 
3343.89 
3369.56 
3395.33 
3421.2 
3447.17 
3473.24 
3499.4 
3525.66 
3552.02 
3578.48 
3605.04 
3631.69 
3658.44 
3685.29 
3712.24 
3739.29 
3766.43 
3793.68 
3821.02 
3848.46 
3876. 
3903.63 
3931.37 
3959.2 
3987.13 
4015.16 
4043.29 
4071.51 
4099.84 
4128.26 
4156.78 



Circum. 



193.994 

194.779 

195.565 

196.35 

197.135 

197.921 

198.706 

199.492 

200.277 

201.062 

201.848 

202.633 

203.419 

204.204 

204.989 

205.775 

203.56 

207.346 

208.131 

208.916 

20J.702 

210.487 

211.273 

212.058 

212.843 

213.629 

214.414 

215.2 

215.985 

216.77 

217.556 

218.341 

219.127 

219.912 

220.697 

221.483 

222.268 

223.054 

223.839 

224.624 

225.41 

226.195 

226.981 

227.766 

228.551 



Diam. 



73 



74 



75 



76 



77 



79 



80 



81 



82 



83 



84 



Area* 



4185.4 

4214.11 

4242.93 

4271.84 

4300.85 

4329.96 

4359.17 

4388,47 

4417.87 

4447.38 

4476.98 

4506.67 

4536.47 

4566.36 

4596.36 

4626.45 

4656.64 

4686.92 

4717.31 

4747.79 

4778.37 

4809.05 

4839.83 

4870.71 

4901.68 

4932.75 

4963.92 

4995.19 

5026.56 

5058.03 

5089.59 

5121 25 

5153.01 

5184.87 

5216.82 

5218.88 

5281.03 

5313.28 

5345.63 

5378.08 

5410.62 

5443.26 

5476.01 

5508.84 

5541.78 



Circum. 



229.337 

230.122 

230.908 

231 693 

232.478 

233.264 

234.049 

234.835 

235.62 

236.405 

237.191 

237.976 

238.762 

239.547 

240.332 

241.118 

241.903 

242.689 

243.474 

244.259 

245.045 

245.83 

246.616 

247.401 

248.186 

248.972 

249.757 

250.543 

251.328 

252.113 

252.899 

253.684 

254.47 

255.255 

256.04 

256.826 

257.611 

258.397 

259.182 

259.967 

260.753 

261.538 

262.324 

263.109 

263.894 



266 



Areas and Circumferences of Circles 
{Concluded), 



Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Circum. 


841 


5574.82 


264.68 


921 


6756 


.45 


291.383 


h 


5307.95 


265.465 


93 


6792 


.92 


292.169 


% 


5641.18 


266.251 


I 


6829 


.49 


292.954 


85 


5674.51 


267.036 


h 


6866 


.16 


293.74 


I 


5707.94 


267.821 


1 


6902 


.93 


294.525 


I 


5741.47 


268.607 


94 


6939 


.79 


295.31 


1 


5775.1 


269.392 


1 


6976 


.76 


296.096 


88 


5808.82 


270.178 




7013 


.82 


296.881 


\ 


5842.64 


270.963 


1 


7050 


.98 


297.667 


1 


5876.56 


271.748 


95 


7088 


.23 


298.452 




5910.58 


272.534 


1 

4 


7125 


59 


299.237 


87^ 


5944.69 


273.319 


J 


7163 


04 


300.023 


I 


5978.91 


274.105 


1 


7200 


6 


300.808 


I 


6013.22 


274.89 


96 


7238 


25 


301.594 


I 


6047.63 


275.675 


1 


7275 


99 


302.379 


88 


6082.14 


276.461 


h 


7313 


84 


303.164 


1 


6116.74 


277.246 


3 

4 


7351 


79 


303.95 


1 


6151.45 


278.032 


97 


7389 


83 


304.735 




6186.25 


278.817 


1 

4 


7427 


97 


305.521 


89^ 


6221.15 


279.602 


1 
2 


7466 


21 


306.306 


1 


6256.15 


280.388 


1 


7504 


55 


307.091 


1 


6291.25 


281.173 


98 


7542 


98 


307.877 




6326.45 


281.959 


3. 
4 


7581 


52 


308.662 


90* 


6361.74 


282.744 


h 


7620 


15 


309.448 


I 


6397.13 


283.529 


3 

4 


7658 


88 


310.233 


1 


6432.02 


284.315 


99 


7697 


71 


311.018 




6468.21 


285.1 


1 


7736 


63 


311.804 


91* 


6503.9 


285.886 


i 


7775 


66 


312.589 


1 


6539.68 


286.671 


1 


7814 


78 


313.375 




6575.56 


287.456 


100 


7854 




314.16 


1 


6611.55 


288.242 


1 

4 


7893 


32 


314.945 


92 


6647.63 


289.027 


J 


7932. 


74 


315.731 


1 


6683.8 


289.813 


3 
4 


7972. 


25 


316.516 


1 


6720.08 


290.598 










a 


1 





267 



Areas of Segments of a Circle. 



Drrdiameter of circle. H=:Height of segment. 
Area of segment^D^XM. The following table gives values of 
M corresponding to various values of -j: 



H 




H 




H 




H 




D 


M 


D 


M 


D 


M 


D 


M 


.001 


.000042 


.040 


.010538 


.079 


.028894 


.118 


.052090 


,002 


.000119 


.041 


.010932 


.080 


.029435 


.119 


.052737 


.003 


.000219 


.042 


.011331 


.081 


.029979 


.120 


.053385 


.004 


.000337 


.043 


.011734 


.082 


.030526 


.121 


.054037 


.005 


.000471 


.044 


.012142 


.083 


.031077 


.122 


.054690 


.006 


.000619 


.045 


.012555 


.084 


.031630 


.123 


.055346 


.007 


.000779 


.046 


.012971 


.085 


.032186 


.124 


.05C004 


.008 


.000952 


.047 


.013393 


.086 


.032746 


.125 


.056C64 


.009 


.001135 


.048 


.013818 


.087 


.033308 


.126 


.057326 


.010 


.001329 


.049 


.014248 


.088 


.033873 


.127 


.057991 


.011 


.001533 


.053 


.014681 


.089 


.034441 


.128 


.058C58 


.012 


.001746 


.051 


.015119 


.090 


.035012 


.129 


.059328 


.013 


.001969 


.052 


.015561 


.091 


.035586 


.130 


.059999 


.014 


.002199 


.053 


.016008 


.092 


.036102 


.131 


.060673 


.015 


.002438 


.054 


.016458 


.093 


.036742 


.132 


.061349 


.016 


.002685 


.055 


.016912 


.094 


.037324 


.133 


.062027 


.017 


.002940 


.056 


.017369 


.095 


.037909 


.134 


.062707 


.018 


.003202 


.057 


.017831 


.096 


.038497 


.135 


.063289 


.019 


.003472 


.058 


.018297 


.097 


.039087 


.136 


.064074 


.020 


.003749 


.059 


.018766 


.098 


.039681 


.137 


.064761 


.021 


.004032 


.060 


.019239 


.099 


.040277 


.138 


.0C5449 


.022 


.004322 


.061 


.019716 


.100 


.040875 


.139 


.066140 


.023 


.004619 


.062 


.020197 


.101 


.041477 


.140 


.066833 


.024 


.004922 


.063 


.020681 


.102 


.042081 


.141 


.067528 


.025 


.005231 


.064 


.021168 


.103 


.042687 


.142 


.068225 


.026 


.005546 


.065 


.021660 


.104 


.043296 


.143 


.068924 


.027 


.005867 


.066 


.022155 


.105 


.043908 


.144 


.069626 


.028 


.006194 


.067 


.022653 


.106 


.044523 


.145 


.070329 


.029 


.006527 


.068 


.023155 


.107 


.045140 


.146 


.071034 


.030 


.006866 


.069 


.023660 


.108 


.045759 


.147 


.071741 


.031 


.007209 


.070 


.024168 


.109 


.046381 


.148 


.072450 


.032 


.007559 


.071 


.024680 


.110 


.047006 


.149 


.073162 


.033 


.007913 


.072 


.025196 


.111 


.047633 


.150 


.073875 


.034 


.008273 


.073 


.025714 


.112 


.048262 


.151 


.074590 


.035 


.008638 


.074 


.026236 


.113 


.048894 


.152 


.075307 


.036 


.009008 


.075 


.026761 


.114 


.049529 


.153 


.076026 


.037 


.009383 


.076 


.027290 


.115 


.050165 


.154 


.076747 


.038 


.009763 


.077 


.027821 


.116 


.050805 


.155 


.077470 


.039 


.010148 


.078 


.028356 


.117 


.051446 


.156 


.078194 



268 



Areas of Segments of a Circle {Continued). 



H 




H 




H 




H 




D 


M 


D 


M 


D 


M 


D 


M 


.157 


.078921 


.200 


.111824 


.243 


.147513 


.286 


.185425 


.153 


.079650 


.201 


.112625 


.244 


.148371 


.287 


.186329 


.159 


.080380 


.202 


.113427 


.245 


.149231 


.288 


.187235 


.130 


.081112 


.203 


.114231 


.246 


.150091 


.289 


.188141 


.131 


.081847 


.204 


.115036 


.247 


.150953 


.290 


.189048 


.102 


.082582 


.205 


.115842 


.248 


.151816 


.291 


.189956 


.133 


.083320 


.206 


.116651 


.249 


.152681 


.292 


.190865 


.134 


.084060 


.207 


.117460 


.250 


.153546 


.293 


.191774 


.135 


.084801 


.208 


.118271 


.251 


.154413 


.294 


.192685 


.138 


.085545 


.209 


.119083 


.252 


.155281 


.295 


.193597 


.137 


.086290 


.210 


.119898 


.253 


.156149 


.296 


.194509 


.138 


.087037 


.211 


.120713 


.254 


.157019 


.297 


.195423 


.169 


.087785 


.212 


.121530 


.255 


.157891 


.298 


.196337 


.170 


.088536 


.213 


.122348 


.256 


.15S763 


.299 


.197252 


.171 


.089288 


.214 


.123167 


.257 


.159636 


.300 


.198168 


.172 


.090042 


.215 


.123988 


.258 


.160511 


.301 


.199085 


.173 


.090797 


.216 


.124811 


.259 


.161386 


.302 


.200003 


.174 


.091555 


.217 


.125634 


.260 


.162263 


.303 


.200922 


.175 


.092314 


.218 


.126459 


.261 


.163141 


.304 


.201841 


.173 


.093074 


.219 


.127286 


.262 


.164020 


.305 


.202762 


.i;7 


.093837 


.220 


.128114 


.263 


.164900 


.30« 


.203683 


.178 


.094601 


.221 


.128943 


.264 


.165781 


.307 


.204605 


.1/9 


.095367 


.222 


.129773 


.265 


.166663 


.308 


.205528 


.130 


.096135 


.223 


.130805 


.266 


.167546 


.309 


.206452 


.131 


.098904 


.224 


.131438 


.267 


.168431 


.310 


.207376 


.132 


.097675 


.225 


.132273 


.268 


.169316 


.311 


.208302 


.183 


.098447 


.226 


.133109 


.269 


.170202 


.312 


.209228 


.184 


.099221 


.227 


.133946 


.270 


.171090 


.313 


.210155 


.185 


.099997 


.228 


.134784 


.271 


.171978 


.314 


.211083 


.186 


.100774 


.229 


.135824 


.272 


.172868 


.315 


.212011 


.187 


.101553 


.233 


.136465 


.273 


.173758 


.316 


.212941 


.188 


.102334 


.231 


.137307 


.274 


.174650 


.317 


.213871 


.189 


.103116 


.232 


.138151 


.275 


.175542 


.318 


.214802 


.190 


.103900 


.233 


.138996 


.276 


.176436 


.319 


.215734 


.191 


.104686 


.234 


.139842 


.277 


.177330 


.320 


.216666 


.192 


.105472 


.235 


.140689 


.278 


.178226 


.321 


.217600 


.193 


.103231 


.236 


.141538 


.279 


.179122 


.322 


.218534 


.194 


.107051 


.237 


.142388 


.280 


.180020 


.323 


.219469 


.195 


.107843 


.238 


.143239 


.281 


.180918 


.324 


.220404 


.196 


.108636 


.239 


.144091 


.282 


.181818 


.325 


.221341 


.197 


.109431 


.240 


.144945 


.283 


.182718 


.326 


.222278 


.198 


.110227 


.241 


.145800 


.284 


.183619 


.327 


.223216 


.199 


.111025 


.242 


.146655 


.285 


.184522 


.328 


.224154 



269 



Areas of Segments of a Circle (Concluded), 



H 
D 


M 


H 
D 


M 


H 
D 


M 


H 
D 


M 


.329 


.225094 


.372 


.266111 


.415 


.308110 


.458 


.350749 


.330 


.226034 


.373 


.267078 


.416 


.3090i>6 


.459 


.351745 


.331 


.226964 


.374 


.268046 


.417 


.310082 


.460 


.352742 


.332 


.227916 


.375 


.269014 


.418 


.3110G8 


.461 


.353739 


.333 


.228858 


.376 


.269982 


.419 


.312055 


.462 


.354736 


.334 


.229801 


.377 


.270951 


.420 


.313042 


.463 


.355733 


.335 


.230745 


.378 


.271921 


.421 


.314029 


.464 


.356730 


.336 


.231689 


.379 


.272891 


.422 


.315017 


.465 


.357728 


.337 


.232634 


.380 


.273861 


.423 


.31G005 


.466 


.358725 


.338 


.233580 


.381 


.274832 


.424 


.316993 


.467 


.359723 


.339 


.234526 


.382 


.275804 


.425 


.317981 


.468 


.360721 


.340 


.235473 


.383 


.27G77G 


.426 


.318970 


.469 


.361719 


.341 


.236421 


.384 


.277748 


.427 


.310959 


.470 


.362717 


.342 


.237369 


.385 


.278721 


.428 


.320949 


.471 


.363715 


.343 


.238319 


.386 


.279695 


.429 


.321938 


.472 


.364714 


.344 


.239268 


.387 


.280669 


.430 


.322928 


.473 


.865712 


.345 


.240219 


.388 


.281643 


.431 


.328919 


.474 


.366711 


.346 


.241170 


.389 


.282618 


.432 


.324909 


.475 


.367710 


.347 


.242122 


.390 


.283593 


.433 


.325900 


.476 


.368708 


.348 


.243074 


.391 


.284569 


.434 


.326891 


.477 


.369707 


.349 


.244027 


.392 


.285545 


.435 


.327883 


.478 


.870706 


.350 


.244980 


.393 


.286521 


.436 


.328874 


.479 


.371705 


.351 


.245935 


.394 


.287499 


.437 


.329866 


.480 


.372704 


.352 


.246890 


.395 


.288476 


.438 


.330858 


.481 


.373704 


.353 


.247845 


.396 


.289454 


.439 


.331851 


.482 


.374703 


.354 


.248801 


.397 


.290432 


.440 


.332843 


.483 


.375702 


.355 


.249758 


.398 


.291411 


.441 


.338836 


.484 


.376702 


.356 


.250715 


.399 


.292390 


.442 


.334829 


.485 


.377701 


.357 


.251673 


.400 


.293370 


.443 


.335823 


.486 


.378701 


.358 


.252632 


.401 


.294350 


.444 


.33C816 


.487 


.379701 


.359 


.253591 


.402 


.295330 


.445 


.337810 


.488 


.380700 


.360 


.254551 


.403 


.296311 


.446 


.338804 


.489 


.381700 


.361 


.255511 


.404 


.297292 


.447 


.339799 


.490 


.382700 


.362 


.256472 


.405 


.298274 


.448 


.340793 


.491 


.383700 


.363 


.257433 


.406 


.299256 


.449 


.341788 


.492 


.384699 


.364 


.258395 


.407 


.300238 


.450 


.342783 


.493 


.385699 


.365 


.259358 


.408 


.301221 


.451 


.343778 


.494 


.386699 


.366 


.260321 


.409 


.302204 


.452 


.344773 


.495 


.387699 


.367 


.261285 


.410 


.303187 


.453 


.845768 


.496 


.388699 


.368 


.262249 


.411 


.304171 


.454 


.346764 


.497 


.389699 


.369 


.263214 


.412 


.305156 


.455 


.347760 


.498 


.390699 


.370 


.264179 


.413 


.306140 


.456 


.348756 


.499 


.391699 


.371 


.265145 


.414 


.307125 


.457 


.349752 


.500 


.392699 



270 



PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. 

Pressure, Temperature, Volume and Density. 

(Haswell.) 



a 
J: 'n 


3 

CO u 


u 

■4-> 

Ih 
V 

0. 

e 


Total Heat 
from Water 
at 32°. 


r-l 

M-i 



> 


Density or Wt. 
of 1 Cubic 
Foot. 


I,bs. 


Ins. 


Beg. 


Deg. 


Cu. Ft. 


I.b. 


1 


2.04 


102.1 


1112.5 


330.36 


.003 


2 


4.07 


126.3 


1119.7 


172.08 


.0058 


3 


6.11 


141.6 


1124.6 


117.52 


.0085 


4 


8.14 


153.1 


1128.1 


89.62 


.0112 


5 


10 . 18 


162.3 


1130.9 


72.66 


.0138 


6 


12.22 


170.2 


1133.3 


61.21 


.0163 


7 


14.25 


176.9 


1135.3 


52.94 


.0189 


8 


16.29 


182.9 


1137.2 


46.69 


.0214 


9 


18.32 


188.3 


1138.8 


41.79 


.0239 


10 


20.36 


193.3 


1140.3 


37.84 


.0264 


11 


22.39 


197.8 


1141.7 


34.63 


.0289 


12 


24.43 


202. 


1143. 


31.88 


.0314 


13 


26.46 


205.9 


1144.2 


29.57 


.0338 


14 


28.51 


209.6 


1145.3 


27.61 


.0362 


14.7 


29.92 


212. 


1146.1 


26.36 


.03802 


15 


30.54 


213.1 


1146.4 


25.85 


.0387 


IG 


32.57 


216.3 


1147.4 


24.32 


.0411 


17 


34.61 


219.6 


1148.3 


22.96 


.0435 


18 


36.65 


222.4 


1149.2 


21.78 


.0459 


19 


38.68 


225.3 


1150.1 


20.7 


.0483 


20 


40.72 


228. 


1150.9 


19.72 


.0507 


21 


42.75 


230.6 


1151.7 


18.84 


.0531 


22 


44.79 


233.1 


1152.5 


18.03 


.0555 


23 


46.83 


235.5 


1153.2 


17.26 


.058 


24 


48.86 


237.8 


1153.9 


16.64 


.0601 


25 


50.9 


240.1 


1154.6 


15.99 


.0625 


26 


52.93 


242.3 


1155.3 


15.38 


.065 


27 


54.97 


244.4 


1155.8 


14.86 


.0673 


28 


57.01 


246.4 


1156.4 


14.37 


.0696 


29 


59.04 


248.4 


1157.1 


13.9 


.0719 



271 



Properties of Saturated Steam {Continued), 



u 

V 

p..H 

CO 

J; <« 

Oh 


c 

m u 

tn (u 

Oh 


ti 
u 

1 

V 

6 


Total Heat 
from Water 
at 32°. 


r-l 
O 


Density or Wt. 
of 1 Cubic 
Foot. 


I.bs. 


Ins. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Cu. Ft. 


I.b. 


30 


61.08 


250.4 


1157.8 


13.46 


.0743 


31 


63.11 


252.2 


1158.4 


13.05 


.0766 


32 


65.15 


254.1 


1158.9 


12.67 


.0789 


33 


67.19 


255.9 


1159.5 


12.31 


.0812 


34 


69.22 


257.6 


1160. 


11.97 


.0835 


35 


71.26 


259.3 


1160.5 


11.65 


.0858 


36 


73.29 


260.9 


1161. 


11.34 


.0881 


37 


75.33 


262.6 


1161.5 


11.04 


.0905 


38 


77.37 


264.2 


1162. 


10.76 


.0929 


39 


79.4 


265.8 


1162.5 


10.51 


.0952 


40 


81.43 


267.3 


1162.9 


10.27 


.0974 


41 


83 .47 


268.7 


1163.4 


10.03 


.0996 


42 


85.5 


270.2 


1163.8 


9.81 


.102 


43 


87.54 


271.6 


1164.2 


9.59 


.1042 


44 


89.58 


273. 


1164.6 


9.39 


.1065 


45 


91.61 


274.4 


1165.1 


9.18 


.1089 


46 


93.65 


275.8 


1165.5 


9. 


.1111 


47 


95.69 


277.1 


1165.9 


8.82 


.1133 


48 


97.72 


278.4 


1166.3 


8.65 


.1156 


49 


99.76 


279.7 


1166.7 


8.48 


.1179 


50 


101.8 


281. 


1167.1 


8.31 


.1202 


51 


103.83 


282.3 


1167.5 


8.17 


.1224 


52 


105.87 


283.5 


1167.9 


8.04 


.1246 


53 


107.9 


284.7 


1168.3 


7.88 


.1269 


54 


109.94 


285.9 


1168.6 


7.74 


.1291 


55 


111.98 


287.1 


1169. 


7.61 


.1314 


56 


114.01 


288.2 


1169.3 


7.48 


.1336 


57 


116.05 


289.3 


1169.7 


7.36 


.1364 


58 


118.08 


290.4 


1170. 


7.24 


.138 


59 


1^.12 


291.6 


1170.4 


7.12 


.1403 


60 


122.16 


292.7 


1170.7 


7.01 


,1425 


61 


124.19 


293.8 


1171.1 


6.9 


.1447 


62 


126.23 


294.8 


1171.4 


6.81 


.1469 


63 


128.26 


295.9 


1171.7 


6.7 


.1493 


64 


130.3 


296.9 


1172. 


6.6 


.1516 


65 


132.34 


298. 


1172.3 


6.49 


.1538 


66 


134.37 


299. 


1172.6 


6.41 


.156 


67 


136.4 


300. 


1172.9 


6.32 


.1583 


68 


138.44 


300.9 


1173.2 


6.23 


.1605 


69 


140.48 


301.9 


1173.5 


6.15 


.1627 



272 



Properties of Saturated Steam (Continued), 



U 

n 

S o" 

PL4 


S3 


u 

3 

i-> 

V 

o. 

e 


Total Heat 
from Water 
at 32°. 


O 


Density or Wt. 
of 1 Cubic 
Foot. 


I,bs. 


Ins. 


Beg. 


Deg. 


Cu. Ft. 


I.b. 


70 


142.52 


302.9 


1173.8 


6.07 


.1648 


71 


144.55 


303.9 


1174.1 


5.99 


.167 


72 


146.59 


304.8 


1174.3 


5.91 


.1692 


73 


148.62 


305.7 


1174.6 


5.83 


.1714 


74 


150.66 


306.6 


1174.9 


5.76 


.1736 


75 


152.69 


307.5 


1175.2 


5.68 


.1759 


76 


154.73 


308.4 


1175.4 


5.61 


.1782 


77 


156.77 


309.3 


1175.7 


5.54 


.1804 


78 


158.8 


310.2 


1176. 


5.48 


.1826 


79 


160.84 


311.1 


1176.3 


5.41 


.1848 


80 


162.87 


312. 


1176.5 


5.35 


.1869 


81 


164.91 


312.8 


1176.8 


5.29 


.1891 


82 


166.95 


313.6 


1177.1 


5.23 


.1913 


83 


168.98 


314.5 


1177.4 


5.17 


.1935 


84 


171.02 


315.3 


1177.6 


5.11 


.1957 


85 


173.05 


316.1 


1177.9 


5.05 


.198 


86 


175.09 


316.9 


1178.1 


5. 


.2002 


87 


177.13 


317.8 


1178.4 


4.94 


.2024 


88 


179.16 


318.6 


1178.6 


4.89 


.2044 


89 


181.2 


319.4 


1178.9 


4.84 


.2067 


90 


183.23 


320.2 


1179.1 


4.79 


.2089 


91 


185.27 


321. 


1179.3 


4.74 


.2111 


92 


187.31 


321.7 


1179.5 


4.69 


.2133 


93 


189.34 


322.5 


1179.8 


4.64 


.2155 


94 


191.38 


323.3 


1180. 


4.6 


.2176 


95 


193.41 


324.1 


1180.3 


4.55 


.2198 


96 


195.45 


324.8 


1180.5 


4.51 


.2219 


97 


197.49 


325.6 


1180.8 


4.46 


.2241 


98 


199.52 


326.2 


1181. 


4.42 


.2263 


99 


201.56 


327.1 


1181.2 


4.37 


.2285 


100 


203.59 


327.9 


1181.4 


4.33 


.2307 


101 


205.63 


328.5 


1181.6 


4.29 


.2329 


102 


207.66 


329.1 


1181.8 


4.25 


.2351 


103 


209.7 


329.9 


1182. 


4.21 


.2373 


104 


211.74 


330.6 


1182.2 


4.18 


.2393 


105 


213.77 


331.3 


1182.4 


4.14 


.2414 


106 


215.81 


331.9 


1182.6 


4.11 


.2435 


107 


217.84 


332.6 


1182.8 


4.07 


.2456 


108 


219.88 


333.3 


1183. 


4.04 


.2477 


109 


221.92 


334. 


1183.3 


4. 


.2499 



273 



Properties of Saturated Steam {Continued), 



Pressure per 
sq. in. 


S3 

w u 

Ui U 


u 

B 

V 


Total Heat 
from Water 
at 32°. 


O 


Density or Wt. 
of 1 Cubic 
Foot. 


I,bs 


Ins. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Cu. Ft. 


I.b. 


110 


223.95 


334.6 


1183.5 


3.97 


.2521 


111 


225.99 


335.3 


1183.7 


3.93 


.2543 


112 


228.02 


336. 


1183.9 


3.9 


.2564 


113 


230.06 


336.7 


1184.1 


3.86 


.2586 


114 


232.1 


337.4 


1184.3 


3.83 


.2607- 


115 


234.13 


338. 


1184.5 


3.8 


.2628 


116 


236.17 


338.6 


1184.7 


3.77 


.2649 


117 


238.2 


339.3 


1184.9 


3.74 


.2652 


118 


240.24 


339.9 


1185.1 


3.71 


.2674 


119 


242.28 


340.5 


1185.3 


3.68 


.2696 


120 


244.31 


341.1 


1185.4 


3.65 


.2738 


121 


246.35 


341.8 


1185.6 


3.62 


.2759 


122 


248 . 38 


342.4 


1185.8 


3.59 


.278 


123 


250 . 42 


343. 


1186. 


3.56 


.2801 


124 


252.45 


343.6 


1186.2 


3.54 


.2822 


125 


254.49 


344.2 


1186.4 


3.51 


.2845 


126 


256.53 


344.8 


1186.6 


3.49 


.2867 


127 


258.56 


345.4 


1186.8 


3.46 


.2889 


128 


260.6 


346. 


1186.9 


3.44 


.2911 


129 


262.64 


346.6 


1187.1 


3.41 


.2933 


130 


264.67 


347.2 


1187.3 


3.38 


.2955 


131 


266.71 


347.8 


1187.5 


3.35 


.2977 


132 


268.74 


348.3 


1187.6 


3.33 


.2999 


133 


270.78 


348.9 


1187.8 


3.31 


.302 


134 


272.81 


349.5 


1188. 


3.29 


.304 


135 


274.85 


350.1 


1188.2 


3.27 


.306 


136 


276.89 


350.6 


1188.3 


3.25 


.308 


137 


278.92 


351.2 


1188.5 


3.22 


.3101 


138 


280 . 96 


351.8 


1188.7 


3.2 


.3121 


139 


282.99 


352.4 


1188.9 


3.18 


.3142 


140 


285 . 03 


352.9 


1189. 


3.16 


.3162 


141 


287.07 


353.5 


1189.2 


3.14 


.3184 


142 


289.1 


354. 


1189.4 


3.12 


.3206 


143 


291.14 


354.5 


1189.6 


3.1 


.3228 


144 


293.17 


355. 


1189.7 


3.08 


.325 


145 


295 . 21 


355.6 


1189.9 


3.06 


.3273 


146 


297 . 25 


356.1 


1190. 


3.04 


.3294 


147 


299.28 


356.7 


1190.2 


3.02 


.3315 


148 


301.32 


357.2 


1190.3 


3. 


.3336 


149 


303.35 


357.8 


1190.5 


2.98 


.3357 



274 



Properties of Saturated Steam (Concluded), 



Pressure per 
sq. in. 


c 

S3 

in u 


«3 

u 

■»-» 
a 
u 

V 

B 

Eh 


Total Heat 
from Water 
at 32^ 


i-i 

o 

6 S 


Density or Wt. 
of 1 Cubic 
Foot. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Deg. 


Deg. 


Cu. Ft. 


Lb. 


150 


305.39 


358.3 


1190.7 


2.96 


.3377 


155 


315.57 


361. 


1191.5 


2.87 


.3484 


160 


325.75 


363.4 


1192.2 


2.79 


.359 


165 


335.93 


366. 


1192.9 


2.71 


.3695 


170 


346.11 


368.2 


1193.7 


2.63 


.3798 


175 


356.29 


370.8 


1194.4 


2.56 


.3899 


180 


366.47 


372.9 


1195.1 


2.49 


.4009 


185 


376.65 


375.3 


1195.8 


2.43 


.4117 


190 


386.83 


377.5 


1196.5 


2.37 


.4222 


195 


397.01 


379.7 


1197.2 


2.31 


.4327 


200 


407.19 


381.7 


1197.8 


2.26 


.4431 


210 


427.54 


386. 


1199.1 


2.16 


.4634 


220 


447.9 


389.9 


1200.3 


2.06 


.4842 


230 


468 .26 


393.8 


1201.5 


1.98 


.5052 


240 


488.62 


397.5 


1202.6 


1.9 


.5248 


250 


508.98 


401.1 


1203.7 


1.83 


.5464 


260 


529.34 


404.5 


1204.8 


1.76 


.5669 


270 


549.7 


407.9 


1205.8 


1.7 


.5868 


280 


570.06 


411.2 


1206.8 


1.64 


.6081 


290 


590.42 


414.4 


1207.8 


1.59 


.6273 


300 


610.78 


417.5 


1208.7 


1.54 


.6486 


350 


712.57 


430.1 


1212.6 


1.33 


.7498 


400 


814.37 


444.9 


1217.1 


1.18 


.8502 


450 


916.17 


456.7 


1220.7 


1.05 


.9499 


500 


1018. 


467.5 


1224. 


.95 


1.049 


550 


1119.8 


477.5 


1227. 


.87 


1.148 


600 


1221.6 


487. 


1229.9 


.8 


1.245 


650 


1323.4 


495.6 


1232.5 


.74 


1.342 


700 


1425.8 


504.1 


1235.1 


.69 


1.4395 


800 


1628.7 


519.5 


1239.8 


.61 


1.6322 


900 


1832.3 


533.6 


1244.2 


.55 


1.8235 


1000 


2035.9 


546.5 


1248.1 


.5 


2.014 



275 



INDEX 



Air — weight of 250 

Alkali in oil 212 

Ammonia in water 51 

Ampere 252 

Anchor bolts 94 

Anthracite coal 9 

Area of tubes 231 

Areas of Circles 263-267 

Areas of Segments 268-270 

Atmospheric Pressure • • 223 

Average pressures 249 

Babbitt metals 148 

Babbitt packing rings 133 

Banking fire 20 

Balancing vertical engines 113 

Balanced valves 173 

Bearing metal 147 

Belt dressing 205 

Belt joints '. 205 

Belt leather 201 

Belting 130-198-207 

Belts — power of 203 

Black lead -63-147 

Blowers 12 

Home made 14 

Blow-off valve troubles 33 

Blow-off pipes 44 

Boiler braces 235 

Boiler compounds — Cutch 23 

Gambler 23 

Carbonate of Soda 23 

Japonica 23 

Kerosene 23 

Potatoes 23 

Sal. soda . 23 

Tannic acid 23 

Boiler — contents of 228 

Boiler economy 221-232 

Boiler explosions 51 

Boiler feeding ••........ 19 

Boiler fittings 42 

Boiler horse power 227 

Boiler ratings • • . . 228 

Boiler room 7 

Boiler settings 26-42-44 

Boiler tests • • 251 

Boilers 51 

276 



Boilers — material 39 

Boilers — strength of 39 

Boilers — weakness of 51 

Braces 235 

Brick foundations 97 

Bricklaying 82 

Bridge walls 46 

Bronze bearings 149 

Btilkley's condensers 180 

Burnishing .218 

Carbonate of soda 2;^ 

Caustic soda 23 

Cards i52-i55-is) 

Causes of heating 151 

Air bound pumps 238 

Air chambers 237 

Air pumps and condensers 176 

Air pump packing 177 

Cement and mortar .83 

Cement 84 

Mixing 88 

Portland 84 

Rosendale 84 

Specifications 87 

Testing 86 

Centering engine 160 

Check valves 65 

Chemicals for coal 19 

Chimneys 98 

Brick or steel 99 

Size of lOT 

Stability of 262 

Table of 102 

Circles 231 

Circles, Areas of .- 263-267 

Circulation 31-43-222 

Cleaning Boilers 7-222 

Cleaning boiler flues 7 

Clean boilers 222 

Cleaning engines 218 

Cleaning fire 11 

Clearance 224 

Clinkers 10 

Compound engines in 

Compounds for cleaning 218 

Compounds — tandem 175 

Compression 172-225 

Concrete 90 

Condensation 223 

Condenser troubles i8g 

Condensers and air pumps . _. 67-176-178 

Condensing Engines ■ 69-174 

277 



Contents of boiler 228 

Continuous oiling 214 

Cooling bearings 147 

Cooling mixtures 147 

Cooling off boilers 27-29 

Cooling towers 186-188 

Copper elbows — don't use • .63 

Copper — hardened 254 

Copper rings 133 

Corliss engines 107-111-120-136-139-145-152 

Corliss engine with two eccentrics 153-156-162 

Corliss, Geo. H 105-177 

Corliss valves 175 

Corliss valve setting 158 

Corrosion .• • • . .51 

Crank pin and cross head boxes 149 

Crank pin not central 118 

Crank pins — ^pressing on 125 

Cranks out of square 119 

Crossheads — weak 115 

Curved pipes 74 

Cutch 23 

Cut-off 224 

Cylinder bushings , 133 

Cylinder drips ^^ 

Cylinder oils 132 

Cylinder pressure • • 248 

Cylinder — smooth or rough 131 

Cylinder — water in 135 

Cylinder — wear of 131 

Dam for water supply zi 

Dampers 103 

Defective steam gages , . 32-242 

Direct connected engines no 

Dirty streams — feed water from • 38 

Down draft 15 

Draft — forced or induced 103-251 

Draining of floors 50 

Draining of pipes • 65 

Drip pipes for cylinders 79 

Drop of voltage 253 

Duplex pumps 21-237-239 

Eccentrics 133 

Economizers 241 

Economy 166 

Economy of boiler 232 

Efficiency of boiler • 221 

Efficiency of engine 223 

Electric light engines 107-174 

Electrical boiler cleaner 24 

Electrical terms 252 

Electricity or shafting 145 

278 



Engine design no 

Engine efficiency 223 

Engine room tools 195 

Equivalent evaporation 251 

Erecting engines 146 

Estimating water power 255 

Evaporation 250 

Examining boards 21-256-261 

Examining masonry 91 

Examination questions 256-261 

Exhaust passages 134 

Exhaust pipes 133 

Expanding metal 256 

Expansions in pipes 61-222 

Expansion of steam 248 

Expansion of wrought iron • .222 

Extracting oil from water 191 

Factor of evaporation 251 

Factor of safety 41 

Feeding boilers 19-226 

Feed pipes 43 

Feed pump — size of 226 

Filtering oils 214 

Filtering water 8 

Fire brick arch 47 

Fire — Thickness of 10 

Fire tools lo-ii 

Firing 9-12-14-16-17 

Fish oils 209 

Fittings for boilers 42 

Flanged joints 60 

Flash test of oil 211 

Floors — draining of 50 

Flow of steam 247 

Fly wheels 123-245 

Foaming 234 

Follower bolts i37-i39 

Foot valves 38 

Forced draft 103-251 

Foundations 92-94 

Stone and brick 97 

Strength of • 92 

Frames out of line 116 

Frozen gage pipe 32 

Furnace plates 48 

Fusible plug 21 

Gage cocks may deceive 33 

Gage connections 33 

Gage glass cutters 197 

Gage glass points 33- 197 

Gage — steam 32-242 

Gambier • • . . 23 

279 



Gaskets — laying out 234 

Graphite • . ,212 

Grate surface • • 228 

Grates 232 

Grease 215 

Gridiron valves 171 

Grooving 52 

Guides 117 

Gum 209 

Hard patch on boiler 234 

Hardened copper 149-254 

Heat — latent 53 

Sensible 53 

Total 53 

Heat units 20-53-221 

Heaters — feed water 69-239-240 

Heating by steam . . ; 79 

Heating of bearings — causes 151 

Heating liquids 70 

Heating surface 42-228 

High test oils 211 

High speed engine 144-164-172 

High steam pressure 146 

Hinge joint for belt 205 

Holding fly wheels 123 

Home-made blower 14 

Horizontal vs. Vertical engines iii 

Horse power • 221 

Horse power of belts 203 

Horse power of boiler 227 

Horse power of engine 165-252 

Hot boxes and bearing metal 147 

Hot well capacity 182 

Hot well temperature 185 

Howe, Elias 105 

Hydraulic piping 58 

Idlers or tighteners 198 

Indicator cards 152-155-157 

Induced draft 103 

Inertia * 225 

Injection water 186 

Inj ectors 238 

Japonica 23 

Jet condensers 186 

Joints for pipe 59 

Joule's experiment 221 

Junk ring 140-163 

Kerosene boilers 23 

Keys : 122 

Kilowatts 252 

Lacing a belt 206 

Lap 225 

280 



Lard oils 2og 

Latent heat 53 

Laying out a valve 169 

Lazy bar 12 

Lead 154-168-225 

Leather for belts 201 

Leaky blow-off valve 33 

Leaks in a cool boiler 30 

Leaky tubes 28 

Leveling shaft 1 19-129 

Lime 23 

Lining up engine 121-125-128 

Locomotive pounds 122 

Loose glands or packing 121 

Loss by dirt and scale 222 

Loss of heat 250 

Lubricants 150-208 

Mason work 82-89 

Examining 91 

Mean effective pressure 249 

Mercury, weight of 223 

Metal for bearings 255 

Metal that expands in cooling 256 

Mineral oil 214 

Mortar and cement 82 

Mud in boilers 8 

Neatsfoot oil 209 

Notes, Rules and Tables 221-231 

Ohm 253 

Oil agents 210 

Oil filters 214 

Oil in condensers 189 

Oil in water 133 

Oil mixtures 210 

Oil separators 191 

Oils 1^32-208 

Oiling continuously 214 

Open heaters 241 

Overheating boilers 28 

Oxalic acid 219 

Packing for air pumps i77 

Packing sticks 197 

Packing with paper 122 

Paper packing 122 

Pastes for polishing 219 

Patching boilers 233 

Pedestal bearings 131 

Petroleum 209 

Picking out belts 200 

Pile driving 93 

Pillow block not level 130 

Pipes, draining of 65 

281 



Pipe joints 59 

Pipes — steam 71 

Pipe threads 55 

Table of 57 

Welds 55 

Piping 8-54 

Piping a hotel 80 

Piping a receiver 81 

Piping, expansion of 61-222 

Piping, hydraulic 58 

Pistons 135 

Piston packing rings 141 

Piston rods and follow bolts 137 

Piston rod breaks 115 

Piston rod fastenings 138 

Piston speed 223-252 

Piston too small 120 

Piston valves 108-172 

Points of compass by watch 255 

Polishing metals 219 

Pop valves 8-45-245 

Poppet valves 106-167 

Potatoes as boiler cleaner 25 

Pounds and their causes 114-118-120-122-143 

Powdered coal 15-250 

Powder or steam pump 22 

Power of engines 165 

Power pumps 236 

Power taken by pumps 236 

Pre-release 225 

Pressing on crank pins 125 

Pressure in cylinders 248 

Pressure, standards of 223 

Properties of steam 271-275 

Pulleys and Ropes 242 

Pulleys not put on true 130 

Pulverized coal 15 

Pumps 21-77-226-236-239 

Pumps — duplex 237-^239 

Pumps for boiler feeding 21 

Pump, leaking piston 239 

Pump, power required 236 

Pumps, rule for 226 

Pump, slip of 226 

Pumps, suction for jy 

Pumps that pound 22 

Pump valves 240 

Putting engine on center t6o 

Questions for examinations 21-256-261 

Ransom's condenser 179 

Ratio of grate and heating surface 228 

Real boiler economy 232 

282 



Receiver piping 8i 

Reversing an engine 170 

Ring oiling 216 

Ropes and pulleys 242 

Rosendale cement ' 84 

Rough cylinders 132 

Rule for pumps 227 

Rules for strength of boilers 4 

Rules, Notes and Tables 221-231 

Runaway engines 174 

Safety valves 8-45-242 

Safety valve outlet 48 

Sal soda 23 

Scale and mud 7-23 

Scrapers 197 

Sector of circle 228 

Segment of circle 228 

Segment of circle — Area of 268-270 

Selecting an engine ; 163 

Sensible heat 53 

Separators 190 

Set screws in fly wheels 123 

Setting eccentrics 169 

Settings for boilers 42-44 

Shaking grates 233 

Shimming the frame 128 

Side walls of boiler setting 46 

Size of wire 253 

Slide valves 168 

Slip joints • • • . 74 

Slip of pump 226 

Smoke 12-14-16 

Smooth cylinders 131 

Soft coal firing 12-17 

Soft patches 233 

Solutions for cleaning 219 

Specifications for belts 207 

Specifications for cement 87 

Speed of belts 204 

Stability of chimneys 262 

Standards of pressure 223 

Starting bars 159 

Starting up a boiler 89 

Steam — Facts about 53 247 

Steam gage connections 33 

Steam gage frozen 32 

Steam gage 242 

Steam heating 79 

Steam jackets 157 

Steam packing rings 142 

Steam pipes 71 

Steam vs. power pump 22 

283 



Steam, Properties of ,. 271-275 

Steam pumps 237 

Steam room 229 

Steam traps 76 

Steel for boilers 39 

Stokers 18 

Stone and brick foundations 97 

Stove blacking lubricant 147 

Strainers 34-36-182 

Strength of boilers 39 

Strength of boilers, Rules for 40 

Stroke 224 

Suction for pumps 'jy 

Surface condensers 189 

Sweet's follower bolt 140 

Syphon condensers 179 

Tables — 

Areas of circles 263-267 

Chimneys 102 

Pipe threads 57 

Segments of circles 268-270 

Steam, Properties of 271-275 

Tables, Notes and Rules 221-231 

Tallow 208 

Tandem compound 175 

Tannic acid 23 

Testing alignment 129 

Testing cement 86 

Testing oils 215 

Testing water 8 

Temperature of hot well 185 

Terminal pressure 225 

The engine room 105 

Thickness of fire 10-16 

Three phase work 253 

Tight belts 145-198 

Tighteners 199 

Tools for engineer 195 

Traps i(i 

Travel of valve 225 

Triangles 247 

Trying gage cocks 2>Z 

Tubes, Cleaning 7 

Iron 41 

Steel 41 

Too many 42 

Twisted guides 117 

Two eccentrics on Corliss engines 153-156-162 

Unequal expansion 52 

Vacuum 185-192 

Valves 167-173 

Valves, balanced 173 

284 



Valve on Straight Line engine 64 

Valve openings 64 

Valve setting 158 

Valve travel 225 

Valves setting, pump 240 

Valves that spring 171 

Vent valves 238 

Vertical engines in 

Vertical engine exhausts 133 

Viscosity of oil 211-213 

Volt 252 

Waste gas boiler 31 

Waste heat, using ; . 26-241 

Water 54 

Water for jet condensers 186 

Water from streams 34 

Water in cylinders 135 

Water strainers 34-36 

Water in exhaust pipe 68 

Water in pipes 42 

Water in steam pipes (fj 

Water hammer 75 

Water power, estimating 255 

Water, pressure of 223 

Water test .8 

Water, weight of 223 

Watt, James 105 

Watts 253 

Wear of cylinders 131 

Welds in pipe 58 

White lead vs. black lead for valves ^z 

Wide belts .202 

Winter masonry 89 

Wire, size of 253 

Wirthington condensers 182 

Wright, William 107 

Wrist plates 154-156 

Wrought iron, expansion of 222 



285 



PUBLICATIONS OF 



The Derry-CoUard Co. 



NEW YORK. 



PRACTICAL PAPER SERIES 

TURNING AND BORING TAPERS. 
Fred H. Colvin. 

A plainly written explanation of a subject that puzzles 
many a mechanic. This explains the different ways of des- 
ignating tapers, gives tables, shows how to use the com- 
pound rest and gives the tapers mostly used. (25c.) 

DRAFTING OF CAMS. 
Louis Rouillion. 

The laying out of cams is a serious problem unless you 
know how to go at it right. This puts you on the right 
road for practically any kind of cam you are likely to run 
up against. And it's plain English, too. (25c.) 

COMMUTATOR CONSTRUCTION. 
Wm. Baxter, Jr. 

The business end of a dynamo or motor is the com- 
mutator, and this is what is apt to give trouble. This shows 
how they are made, why they get out of whack and what 
to do to put 'em right again. (25c.) 

THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. 
Colvin-Stabel. 

This clears up many of the mysteries of thread cutting 
such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching 
threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful hints 
and several tables. (25c.) 

BRAZING AND SOLDERING. 

James F. Hobart. 

A complete course of instruction in all kinds of hard and 
soft soldering. Shows just what tools to use, how to make 
them and how to use them. (250.) 



WIRING A HOUSE. 
Herbert Pratt. 

Shows every step in the wiring of a modern house and 
explains everything so as to be readily understood. Direc- 
tions apply equally to a shop. (25c.) 



MACHINE SHOP ARITHMETIC 
Colvin-Cheney. 

Most popular book for shop men. Shows how all shop 
problems are worked out and "why." Includes change 
gears for cutting any threads; drills, taps, shink and force 
fits ; metric system of measurements and threads. Used by 
all classes of mechanics and for instruction by Y. M. C. A. 
and other schools. Fourth edition. (50c.) 



BEVEL GEAR TABLES. 
D. Ag. Engstrom. 

No one who has to do with bevel gears in any way should 
be vvithout this book. The designer and draftsman will find 
it a great convenience, while to the machinist who turns up 
the blanks or cuts the teeth, it is invaluable, as all needed 
dimensions are given and no fancy figuring need be done. 
($1.00.) 

PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. 
Richards- Colvin. 

Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings 
in the only practical perspective isometric. Makes every- 
thing plain so that any mechanic can understand a sketch 
or drawing in this way. Saves time in the drawing room 
and mistakes in the shops. Contains practical examples of 
various classes of work. (50c.) 

CHANGE GEAR DEVICES. 
Oscar E. Perrigo. 

A book for every designer, draftsman and mechanic who 
is interested in feed changes for any kind of machines. 
This shows what has been done and how. Gives plans, 
patents and all information that you need. Saves hunting 
through patent records and reinventing old ideas. A 
standard work of reference. ($1.00.) 



HOW TO BUILD AN AUTO. 
F. C Mason. 

Gives exact instruction to any mechanic who wishes to 
build a modern runabout or touring car on approved lines. 
Full designs and dimensions are given of motor and car, 
and many have been built. By a designer and ,mechanic, 
and is thoroughly practical in every way. ($i.oo.) 

AMERICAN STEEL WORKER. 
E. R. Markham. 

The standard work on hardening, tempering and anneal- 
ing steel of all kinds. A practical book for the machinist, 
tool maker or superintendent. Shows just how to secure 
best results in any case that comes along. How to make 
and use furnaces and case harden ; how to handle high- 
speed steel and how to temper for all classes of work. 
Second edition. ($2.50.) 



ENGINEERS ARITHMETIC. 
Colvin-Cheney. 

A companion to Machine Shop Arithmetic, arranged for 
the stationary engineer. Shows how to work the problems 
of the engine room and shows " why." Has steam tables 
and a lot of other useful information that makes it popular 
with practical men. (50c.) 

AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. 
W. E. Crane. 

A new book by a well-known author. Begins at the boiler 
room and takes in the whole power plant. Contains the 
result of years of practical experience in all sorts of engine 
rooms and gives exact information that cannot be found 
elsewhere. It's plain enough for practical men and yet of 
value to those high in the profession. Has a complete ex- 
amination for a license. ($2.00.) 

SWITCHBOARDS. 

Wm. Baxter, Jr. 

The only book dealing with this important part of elec- 
trical engineering. Takes up all sizes and kinds from the 
single dynamo in the engine room to the largest power 
plant work. Includes divert and alternating currents ; oil 



switches for high tension; arc and incandescent lighting; 
railway work, and all the rest, except telephone work. 
($1.50.) 



LINK MOTIONS, VALVES AND VALVE SETTING. 
Fred H. Colvin. 

A handy little book for the engineer or machinist that 
clears up the mysteries of valve setting. Shows the dif- 
ferent valve gears in use, how they work and why. Piston 
and slide valves of different types are illustrated and ex- 
plained. A book that every railroad man in the motive 
power department ought to have. (50c,) 

TRAIN RULES AND DISPATCHING. 
H. A. Dalby. 

Contains the standard code for both single and double 
track and explains how trains are handled under all condi- 
tions. Gives all signals in colors, is illustrated wherever 
necessary, and the most complete book in print on this im- 
portant subject. Bound in fine seal flexible leather. 221 
pages. ($1.50.) 

AMERICAN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
Fred H. Colvin. 

The latest and most complete book on compounds. Shows 
all types, including the balanced compound which is now 
being used. Makes everything clear by many illustrations 
and shows valve setting, breakdowns and repairs. A hand- 
some book with ten special inserts of locomotives. ($1.50.) 

THE RAILROAD POCKETBOOK. 

Fred H. Colvin. 

Different from any book you ever saw. Gives clear and 
concise information on just the points you are interested in. 
It's really a pocket encyclopaedia, fully illustrated, and so 
arranged that you can find just what you want in a second 
without an index. Whether you are interested in Axles or 
Acetylene; Compounds or Counter balancing; Rails or 
Reducing Valves ; Tires or Turn-tables, you'll find them in 
this little book. It's very complete. Flexible cloth cover. 
250 pages. ($1.00.) (Interleaved with ruled pages for 
notes, $1.50.) 



EMINENT ENGINEERS. 
Dwight Goddard. 

An intensely interesting account of the achievements of 
thirty-two of the world's best known engineers. Free from 
tiresome details and giving just the facts you want to 
know in an entertaining manner. Portraits are given (many 
of them rare), and the book is an inspiration for both old 
and young. ($1.50.) 



ECONOMICS OF MANUAL TRAINING. 
Prof. Louis Rouillion. 

The only book that gives just the information needed by 
all interested in manual training, regarding buildings, equip- 
ment and supplies. Shows exactly what is needed for all 
grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and 
Normal School. Gives itemized lists of everything needed 
and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to 
buy supplies. ($2.00.) 



BOILER CONSTRUCTION. 
Frank A. Kleinhans. 

The only book showing how locomotive boilers are built 
in modern shops. Shows all types of boilers used ; gives 
details of construction ; practical facts, such as life of rivet- 
ing punches and dies, work done per day, allowance for 
bending and flanging sheets and other data that means 
dollars to any railroad man. 421 pages. 334 illustrations. 
Six folding plates. ($3.00.) 

CAR CHARTS. 

Shows and names all the parts of three types of cars. 
Passenger — Box — Gondola. Printed on heavy plate paper 
and mailed in a tube. (25c. each. Set of 3 for Soc.) 



TRACTIVE POWER CHART. 

A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or draw- 
bar pull of any locomotive, without making a figure. Shows 
what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and steam 
pressure affect the power. What sized engine you need to 
^ exert a given drawbar pull or anything you desire in this 
line. Printed on tough jute paper to stand rolling or fold- 
ine. Cp.oc.') 



TONNAGE CHART. 

Built on the same lines as the Tractive Power Chart; 
it shows the tonnage any tractive power will haul under 
varying conditions of road. No calculations are required. 
Knowing the drawbar pull and grades and curves you find 
tonnage that can be hauled. (50c.) 

HORSE POWER CHART. 

Shows the horse power of any stationary engine without 
calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter or 
stroke; the steam pressure or cut-off; the revolutions or 
whether condensing or non-condensing, its all there. Easy 
to use, accurate and saves time and calculations. Especially 
useful to engineers and designers. (50c.) 

A MODERN BATTLESHIP. 

An engraving which shows the details of a battleship of 
the latest type, as if the sides were of glass and you could 
see all the interior. The finest piece of work that has ever 
been done. So accurate that it is used at Annapolis for 
instruction purposes. Shows all details and gives correct 
name of every part. 28x42 inches — plate paper. (50c.) 

ISOMETRIC SKETCHING PAPER. 

A specially ruled paper which enables any one to draw 
in isometric perspective without difficulty. Made up in 
lots of 40 sheets, as follows : 

6x9 inches, --___-_ 25 cents 
9 X 12 inches, -------50 cents 

12x18 inches, ------- $1.00 



The 

Syphon- Injector 
Condenser 

IvOivest First Cost 

Smallest amotint of steam re- 
c|tiired to operate, and tlie better 
tlie vactium tlie less poller. 

IVKere tliere is a liead of water 
no pump is recftiired. 

'Wlien a ptimp is recftiired it is 
a plain, cold Mrater pump. 

Notliing to ivear out. 

Tlie most perfect vactium main- 
tained of any condenser built. 



HEN RY W. BULKLEY, Engineer 

Orang^e, N. J. 
and 141 Broadway, New YorR City. 



LIBBY VALVE AND 
PACKING CO. 



Libby's Big 4 Extra Heavy Globe 
and Gate Valves, with Amalgamated 
Discs and Seats Removable. 



Amalgamated Discs for any make 
of Valve. 



149-151 VARICK ST. NEW YORK CITY 



Write for catalogue — or our sales- 
man will call if you wish. 



American Steam Packing Go 




MANUFACTURERS OF 



40 Kinds of Packing for Steam, 
Water, Ammonia, Etc. 

109 LIBERTY ST. NEW YORK 

TELEPHONE 1386 CORTLANDT 



The Bass Foundry & 
Machine Company 



Fort Wayne, 


Indiana 


^^ t 




^^H^n^^^BH^^^W^Hc'<4^^HK>'^^!^^^ wm^^psw 


)l0t 


'^I^^^^H^^K^^f'^.i^^^ttKtHiKi^F^^''^ 





Manufacturers of 



CORLISS ENGINES 

Simple Condensing and Compound 



Horizontal Tubular and Water Tube Boilers. Complete Steam 
Power Outfits for all kinds of service. 



Main Office and Works, Fort Wayne, Indiana 

Eastern Office, 1 4 1 Broadway, New York 



ucr 6 li^uc 



